Johannes Kepler

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Johannes Kepler ( ; German: [jo'han? s' k 27 December 1571 - November 15, 1630) was a German mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer.

Kepler was a key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is famous for his laws of planetary motion, based on his works Astronomia nova , Harmonic Mundi , and Epitome of Copernican Astronomy . These works also provide one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's universal theory of gravitation.

Kepler was a mathematics teacher at a seminary school in Graz, where he became fellow Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg. Then he became assistant astronomer Tycho Brahe in Prague, and finally the emperor's mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II and his two successors Matthias and Ferdinand II. He also taught mathematics at Linz, and became an adviser to General Wallenstein. In addition, he performed a fundamental work in the field of optics, finding an improved version of the refracting telescope (Keplerian telescope), and mentioned in his contemporary Galileo Galilei telescopic discovery. He is an appropriate member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome.

Kepler lived in an era when there was no clear distinction between astronomy and astrology, but there was a strong division between astronomy (the branch of mathematics in liberal arts) and physics (the branch of natural philosophy). Kepler also incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by religious beliefs and the belief that God has created the world in accordance with a comprehensible plan accessible through the light of natural reasoning. Kepler describes his new astronomy as "celestial physics", as "a journey to Aristotle's Metaphysics," and as "supplement to Aristotle's On the Heavens," altered the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of universal mathematical physics.

Video Johannes Kepler

Initial years

Kepler was born on December 27, the feast of St. John the Evangelist, 1571, in the Imperial City of Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-WÃÆ'¼rttemberg, 30 km west of central Stuttgart). His grandfather, Sebald Kepler, is the Mayor of the city. By the time Johannes was born, he had two brothers and one sister and the Kepler family's wealth declined. His father, Heinrich Kepler, lived a precarious life as a mercenary, and he left the family when Johannes was five years old. He is believed to have died in the Eighty Years' War in the Netherlands. His mother, Katharina Guldenmann, a innkeeper's daughter, was a physician and herbalist. Born prematurely, Johannes admitted weak and sickly as a child. Nevertheless, he often impresses travelers at his grandfather's inn with a phenomenal mathematics faculty.

He was introduced to astronomy at an early age, and developed a love for it that would reach his whole life. At the age of six, he observed the Great Comet of 1577, writing that he was "carried by his mother [mother] to high ground to see it." In 1580, at the age of nine, he observed another astronomical event, the lunar eclipse, noting that he remembered being "called outside" to see it and that the moon "seemed quite red". However, childhood smallpox leaves him with a weak vision and a paralyzed hand, limiting his ability in the observational aspects of astronomy.

In 1589, after moving through grammar school, Latin school, and seminary in Maulbronn, Kepler attended Tefteringer Stift at TÃÆ'¼bingen University. There he studied philosophy under Vitus MÃÆ'¼ller and theology under Jacob Heerbrand (a student of Philipp Melanchthon at Wittenberg), who also taught Michael Maestlin when he was a student, until he became Chancellor of TÃÆ'¼bingen in 1590. He established himself as a outstanding. a mathematician and gained a reputation as an advanced astrologer, casting horoscopes for fellow students. Under the instructions of Michael Maestlin, professor of mathematics TÃÆ'¼bingen from 1583 to 1631, he studied both the Ptolemaic system and the planetary Copernican system of motion. He became a Copernican at the time. In student disputes, he defends heliocentrism from both theoretical and theological perspectives, maintaining that the Sun is the main source of motive force in the universe. Despite his desire to become a minister, towards the end of his studies, Kepler was recommended for a position as a teacher of mathematics and astronomy at a Protestant school in Graz. He accepted the position in April 1594, at the age of 23 years.

Maps Johannes Kepler

Graz (1594-1600)

Mysterium Cosmographicum

Kepler's first major astronomy work, Mysterium Cosmographicum ( The Cosmographic Mystery ) [1596], was the first defense published from the Copernican system. Kepler claimed to have enlightenment on July 19, 1595, while teaching in Graz, demonstrating the periodic conjunctions of Saturn and Jupiter in the zodiac: he realizes that the regular polygon is bound with a written circle and a circle confined to a fixed ratio, which, he reasoned, the geometric basis of the universe. Having failed to find the unique polygon arrangement that corresponds to known astronomical observations (even with extra planets added to the system), Kepler begins experimenting with 3-dimensional polyhedra. He found that each of the five Platonic solids can be written and restricted by ball soccer; nested solids, each encased in a sphere, will each produce six layers, corresponding to six known planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By selectively ordering solids - octahedrons, icosahedrons, dodecahedrons, tetrahedrons, cubes - Kepler finds that the sphere can be placed at intervals corresponding to the relative size of each planetary path, assuming the planets surround the Sun. Kepler also found a formula relating to the size of the spheres of each planet by the length of its orbital period: from the inner outward planet, the ratio of the orbital period increases is twice the difference in the orb radius. However, Kepler later rejected this formula, because it was not quite accurate.

As shown in the title, Kepler thinks he has revealed God's geometric plan to the universe. Much of Kepler's enthusiasm for the Copernican system stems from his theological beliefs about the relationship between the physical and the spiritual; the universe itself is the image of God, with the Sun corresponding to the Father, the star ball for the Son, and the space between the Holy Spirit. The first text of Mysterium contains an extensive chapter reconciling heliocentrism with parts of the Bible that seem to support geocentrism.

With the support of his mentor Michael Maestlin, Kepler received permission from the university's TÃÆ'¼bingen senate to publish his manuscript, awaiting the abolition of biblical interpretation and the addition of a simpler, easier to understand description of the Copernican system and Kepler's new ideas. Mysterium was published at the end of 1596, and Kepler received a copy and began sending it to eminent astronomers and patrons in early 1597; it was not widely read, but established Kepler's reputation as a highly skilled astronomer. Strong dedication, to the strong protectors and also to those who control his position in Graz, also provides a very important door to the patronage system.

Although the details will be modified in relation to his later work, Kepler never releases the Platonic polyhedral cosmology of Mysterium Cosmographicum. The next major astronomical work in some ways only further development of it, is concerned with finding the more appropriate inner and outer dimensions for the spheres by calculating the eccentricity of the planetary orbits in them. In 1621, Kepler published the second expanded edition of Mysterium, the other half as the first, detailing the corrective footnotes and improvements he has accomplished in the 25 years since his first publication.

In terms of the impact of Mysterium, it can be seen as an important first step in the modernization of the theory proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus in his book "De Revolutionibus orbium coelestium". While Copernicus seeks to advance the heliocentric system in this book, it uses Ptolemaic devices (ie, epicoda and eccentric circles) to explain changes in the planet's orbital velocity, and also continues to be used as a reference point of the earth's orbital center rather than the sun "as an aid to calculation and to avoid confusing the reader by deviating too much from Ptolemy. " Modern astronomy owes much to "Mysterium Cosmographicum", though there is a shortage in its main thesis, "because this is the first step in clearing the Copernican system from Ptolemy's remnant theories still attached to it."

Wedding to Barbara MÃÆ'¼ller

In December 1595, Kepler was introduced to Barbara MÃÆ'¼ller, a 23-year-old widow (twice more) with a young daughter, Regina Lorenz, and she began dating her. MÃÆ'¼ller, an heir to the estate of her late husband, is also the daughter of a successful factory owner. His father, Jobst, initially opposed marriage despite Kepler's nobility; although he inherited his grandfather's patrician, Kepler's poverty made him an unacceptable match. Jobst relented after Kepler finished working on Mysterium, but the engagement was almost a mess while Kepler went inclined to the details of the publication. However, Protestant officials - who helped organize the match - pressured the MÃÆ'¼llers to honor their agreement. Barbara and Johannes were married on April 27, 1597.

In the first years of their marriage, Kepler had two children (Heinrich and Susanna), both of whom died in infancy. In 1602 they had a daughter (Susanna); in 1604, a son (Friedrich); and in 1607, another son (Ludwig).

More research

After the publication of Mysterium and with the blessing of the Graz school inspector, Kepler embarked on an ambitious program to expand and elaborate on his work. He planned four additional books: one on the stationary aspect of the universe (the Sun and the fixed stars); one on the planet and their movement; one on the physical properties of the planet and the formation of geographic features (mainly focused on Earth); and one about the effects of the sky on Earth, to include atmospheric optics, meteorology, and astrology.

He also sought the opinions of many astronomers he had sent Mysterium, among them Reimarus Ursus (Nicolaus Reimers BÃÆ'¤r) - the imperial mathematician for Rudolph II and bitter rival Tycho Brahe. Ursus did not answer directly, but published a Kepler letter sticking out to pursue his priority dispute (now called) Tychonic system with Tycho. Despite these black marks, Tycho also began to conform to Kepler, beginning with the harsh but legitimate criticism of the Kepler system; among a number of objections, Tycho took issue with the use of inaccurate numerical data taken from Copernicus. Through their letters, Tycho and Kepler discussed various astronomical problems, struggling on the phenomenon of the moon and the Copernican theory (especially its theological capabilities). But without data that is significantly more accurate than Tycho's observatory, Kepler has no way of addressing many of these problems.

Instead, he turned his attention to chronology and "harmony", the numerological relationship between music, mathematics, and the physical world, and the consequences of their astrology. Assuming the Earth has a soul (a property which he will later use to explain how the sun causes planetary motion), it forms a speculative system that connects aspects of astrology and astronomical distances to weather and other world phenomena. However, in 1599, he felt his work was limited by inaccuracies of available data - as increased religious tensions also threatened his ongoing work in Graz. In December of that year, Tycho invited Kepler to visit him in Prague; on January 1, 1600 (even before he accepted the invitation), Kepler set out in the hope that Tycho's patronage could solve his philosophical problems as well as his social and financial problems.

Prague (1600-1612)

Working for Tycho Brahe

On February 4, 1600, Kepler met Tycho Brahe and his assistants Franz Tengnagel and Longomontanus at BenÃÆ'¡tky nad Jizerou (35 km from Prague), the place where the new Tycho observatory was built. Over the next two months, he remains a guest, analyzing some of Tycho's observations about Mars; Tycho carefully guarded his data, but was impressed by Kepler's theoretical ideas and immediately gave him more access. Kepler plans to test his theory of Mysterium Cosmographicum based on Mars data, but he estimates that the work will take up to two years (since he is not allowed to copy data for his own use). With the help of Johannes Jessenius, Kepler attempted to negotiate a more formal arrangement of work with Tycho, but the negotiations failed in angry arguments and Kepler went to Prague on April 6. Kepler and Tycho soon reconciled and finally reached an agreement on salary and life. setting, and in June, Kepler returns to Graz to gather his family.

The political and religious difficulties in Graz destroyed his hopes of returning to Brahe soon; hoping to continue with astronomy studies, Kepler sought appointment as a mathematician for Archduke Ferdinand. For that, Kepler composed an essay - dedicated to Ferdinand - in which he proposed a power-based lunar theory: "In Terra inest virtus, quae Lunam ciet" ("There is power on earth that causes the moon to move"). Although the essay did not give him a place in Ferdinand's palace, he detailed a new method for measuring the lunar eclipse, which he applied during the July 10 eclipse in Graz. This observation forms the basis of its exploration of optical law which will lead to Astronomiae Pars Optica .

On August 2, 1600, after refusing to convert to Catholicism, Kepler and his family were expelled from Graz. A few months later, Kepler returned, now with his entire family, to Prague. Through most of 1601, he was directly supported by Tycho, who commissioned him to analyze planetary observations and write tracts against Tycho's (by the deceased) rival, Ursus. In September, Tycho gave him a commission as a collaborator on a new project he had proposed to the emperor: Rudolphine Tables supposed to replace Prasenic Tables from Erasmus Reinhold. Two days after Tycho's unexpected death on October 24, 1601, Kepler was appointed as his successor as an imperial mathematician with responsibility for completing unfinished work. The next 11 years as an imperial mathematician will be the most productive of his life.

Advisor for Emperor Rudolph II

Kepler's primary duty as an imperial mathematician was to provide astrological advice to the emperor. Although Kepler takes a dim view of the efforts of contemporary astrologers to precisely predict the future or specific divine events, he has given detailed horoscopes well received to friends, family, and customers since his time as a student at TÃÆ'¼bingen. In addition to horoscopes for foreign allies and leaders, the emperor sought Kepler's advice in times of political difficulties. Rudolph is actively interested in the work of many court scholars (including many alchemists) and continues to work with Kepler in physical astronomy as well.

Officially, the only acceptable religious doctrine in Prague is Catholic and Utraquist, but Kepler's position in the imperial court allows him to practice his Lutheran faith without hindrance. The emperor nominally gave a considerable income to his family, but the difficulties in the imperial treasury were exaggerated meant that actually earning enough money to fulfill his financial obligations was an ongoing struggle. Partly due to financial problems, his life at home with Barbara is unpleasant, marred by arguments and disease attacks. The life of the court, however, brought Kepler into contact with other prominent scholars (Johannes MatthÃÆ'¤us Wackher von Wackhenfels, Jost BÃÆ'¼rgi, David Fabricius, Martin Bachazek, and Johannes Brengger, among others) and astronomical work proceeded quickly.

Astronomiae Pars Optica

As Kepler slowly proceeded to analyze Mars Tycho's observations - now available to him as a whole - and begin the slow process of tabulating Rudolphine Tables, Kepler also took an optical law investigation of the 1600s essay. Both the lunar eclipse and the sun present a phenomenon which are unexplained, such as unexpected shadow size, the red color of a total lunar eclipse, and the unusual reported light that surrounds the total solar eclipse. The related issues of atmospheric refraction are applied to all astronomical observations. Through much of 1603, Kepler quit his other work to focus on optical theory; the resulting manuscript, presented to the emperor on 1 January 1604, was published as Astronomiae Pars Optica (Astronomical Optical Section). In it, Kepler describes the inverse square law that governs the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and the principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the implications of optical astronomy such as parallax and the apparent size of celestial bodies. He also extends his studies of optics to the human eye, and is generally considered by neurologists to be the first to recognize that images are projected upside down and reversed by the lens of the eye to the retina. The solution to this dilemma did not really matter to Kepler because he did not see it as optical, although he suggested that the image was later corrected "in the brain basin" because of "Soul activity." "Today, Astronomiae Pars Optica is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (although strictly emblematic laws do not exist.) In connection with the start of projective geometry, Kepler introduced the idea of ​​continuous change of the mathematical entity in this work. argue that if the focus of the cone-shaped part is allowed to move along the line connecting the foci, the geometric shape will change or degenerate, one to another.In this way, the ellipse becomes a parabola when the focus moves toward infinity, and when the two elliptical foci merge into one When the hyperbola fused into each other, the hyperbola becomes a pair of straight lines and also assumes that if the straight line is extended to infinity it will meet itself at one point in infinity, thus having the properties of a large circle.

Supernova from 1604

In October 1604, a bright new night star (SN 1604) appeared, but Kepler did not believe the rumor until he saw it himself. Kepler began to systematically observe nova. Astrology, the end of the year 1603 marks the beginning of a fiery trigon, the beginning of a great conjunction cycle of 800 years; astrologers linked two such periods earlier with the advent of Charlemagne (about 800 years earlier) and the birth of Christ (about 1600 years earlier), and thus expect very important events, especially regarding the emperor. It was in this context, as the imperial mathematician and astrologer to the emperor, that Kepler depicted a new star two years later in his book De Stella Nova. In it, Kepler speaks of the astronomical nature of the star while taking a skeptical approach to many of the astrological interpretations that then circulate. He notes the faded luminosity, speculates about its origin, and uses the lack of observed parallax to assert that it is in the sphere of fixed stars, further destroying the doctrine of eternity of the sky (the idea received since Aristotle that the celestial sphere is perfect and unchanged). The birth of a new star implies the variability of the sky. In an annex, Kepler also discusses the latest chronology of the work of the Polish historian Laurentius Suslyga; he calculates that, if Suslyga is correct that the timeline received is four years behind, then the Star of Bethlehem - analogous to the new star now - will coincide with the first major relationship of the previous 800-year cycle.

Astronomia nova

The long line of research culminating in Astronomia nova A New Astronomy - including the first two laws of planetary motion - begins with analysis, under the direction of Tycho, the orbit of Mars. Kepler calculated and recalculated various Martian orbits by using equant (a mathematical tool Copernicus had removed with the system), eventually creating a model generally accepted by Tycho's observations within two minutes (average measurement error). But he is not satisfied with the complex results and is still slightly inaccurate; at certain points different models of data up to eight minutes arc. Various kinds of traditional mathematical astronomy methods have failed, Kepler began trying to adjust the ovoid orbit to the data.

In Kepler's religious view of the cosmos, the Sun (the symbol of God the Father) is the source of motive power in the solar system. As a physical base, Kepler draws on the analogy of William Gilbert's theory of the Earth's magnetic soul from De Magnete (1600) and to his own work on optics. Kepler suspects that the motive power (or species motif ) emitted by the Sun is weakened by distance, causing a faster or slower motion as the planet moves closer or farther from it. Perhaps this assumption requires a mathematical relationship that will restore the astronomical order. Based on aphelion and perihelion measurements of Earth and Mars, it creates a formula in which the rate of motion of the planet is inversely proportional to its distance from the Sun. Verifying this relationship throughout the orbital cycle, however, requires very extensive calculations; to simplify this task, at the end of 1602 Kepler redefined the proportion in terms of geometry: planets sweep the same region at the same time - Kepler's second law of planetary motion.

He then began to calculate the entire orbits of Mars, using the laws of geometric rate and assuming an egg-shaped ovoid orbit. After approximately 40 attempts failed, at the beginning of 1605 he finally found the idea of ​​an ellipse, previously considered too simple as a solution to previously missed astronomers. Finding that elliptical orbit corresponds to Mars data, he soon concludes that all planets move in elliptical form, with the sun at one focus - Kepler's first law of planetary motion. Since he does not employ assistant counters, he does not extend mathematical analysis beyond Mars. At the end of the year, he completed the manuscript for Astronomia nova , although it would not be published until 1609 due to legal disputes over the use of Tycho's observations, the property of his heirs.

Dioptrice , Somnium manuscript, and other work

In the years following the completion of Astronomia Nova , most of Kepler's research focused on preparation for Rudolphine Tables and a comprehensive set of ephemerides (specific predictions about planetary and star position)) based on tables (though it will not be completed for years). He also tried (unsuccessfully) to begin a collaboration with Italian astronomer Giovanni Antonio Magini. Some of his other works relate to chronology, especially the calendar of events in the life of Jesus, and with astrology, especially the criticism of dramatic predictions of disasters such as Helisaeus Roeslin.

Kepler and Roeslin were involved in a series of published attacks and counter-attacks, while physician Philip Feselius published works that sacked astrology altogether (and Roeslin's work especially). Responding to what Kepler sees as an excess of astrology on the one hand and over-rejection of it on the other, Kepler prepares Third Interveniens. [Intervention of Third Party]. Nominally this work - presented to Roeslin and Feselius' public patrons - is a neutral mediation between hostile scholars, but also establishes Kepler's general view of the value of astrology, including some of the hypothesized interaction mechanisms between the planet and the individual soul.. While Kepler considers most of the traditional rules and methods of astrology to be "evil smudges" in which "a mother hen" scratches, there are "occasional grains, even, even a pearl or golden nugget" to be found. by a careful scientific forecaster. In contrast, Sir Oliver Lodge observes that Kepler is somewhat dismissive of astrology, because Kepler "constantly attacks and throws sarcasm at astrology, but that is the only thing that people will pay for, and above it after the mode he is living."

In the first months of 1610, Galileo Galilei - using a powerful new telescope - found four satellites orbiting Jupiter. After publishing his account as Sidereus Nuncius [Starry Messenger], Galileo sought Kepler's opinion, partly to improve the credibility of his observations. Kepler responded enthusiastically with the short reply published, Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo [Conversation with Starry Messenger]. He supports Galileo's observations and offers various speculations about the meaning and implications of Galileo's invention and telescopic methods, for astronomy and optics as well as cosmology and astrology. Later that year, Kepler published his own telescope observation of the moon at Narratio de Jovis Satellitibus, providing further support from Galileo. To Kepler's disappointment, however, Galileo never published his reactions (if any) for Astronomia Nova .

After hearing the discovery of the Galileo telescope, Kepler also initiated a telescopic theoretical and experimental optical investigation using a telescope borrowed from Duke Ernest of Cologne. The resulting manuscript was completed in September 1610 and published as a Dioptrice in 1611. In it, Kepler laid down the theoretical basis of a double-convex converging lens and a double concave diverging lens - and how they were combined to produce the Galilean telescope - as well as virtual vs real image concepts, upright vs. reversed images, and focal length effects on enlargement and reduction. He also described the enhanced telescope - now known as astronomy or Keplerian telescope - where two convex lenses can produce a higher magnification than the Galileo combination of convex and concave lenses.

Around 1611, Kepler circulated a manuscript of what would eventually be published (posthumously) as Somnium . Part of the purpose of Somnium is to illustrate what astronomy will practice like from another planetary perspective, to demonstrate the feasibility of a non-geocentric system. The manuscript, which disappears after changing hands several times, describes a fantastic journey to the moon; it is part allegory, autobiographical part, and part of the treatise on interplanetary travel (and sometimes described as the first science fiction). Years later, a distorted version of the story may have triggered a magic tribunal against his mother, since the mother of the narrator conspires with the devil to study the ways of space travel. After his final release, Kepler compiled 223 footnotes for the story - several times longer than the actual text - which explains the allegorical aspects as well as sufficient scientific content (especially regarding the geography of the moon) hidden within the text.

Working in math and physics

As a New Year's gift of that year (1611), he also comprised his best friend and patron, Baron Wackher von Wackhenfels, a short pamphlet entitled Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula A New Year Gift Hexagonal Snow ). In this treatise, he published the first description of the hexagonal symmetry of snowflakes and, extending the discussion into a hypothetical atomistic basis for symmetry, which later became what Kepler supposedly known, a statement about the most efficient arrangement for football..

Personal and political issues

In 1611, the growing political-religious tension in Prague peaked. Emperor Rudolph - whose health failed - was forced to abdicate as king of Bohemia by his brother, Matthias. Both sides sought Kepler's astrological advice, an opportunity he used to provide peaceful political advice (with little reference to the stars, except in a general statement to prevent drastic action). However, it is clear that Kepler's future prospects in Matthias court are dim.

Also that year, Barbara Kepler had Hungarian fever, then started having seizures. As Barbara begins to recover, Kepler's children fall sick with smallpox; Friedrich, 6, died. After the death of his son, Kepler sent a letter to potential customers in WÃÆ'¼rttemberg and Padua. At the University of TÃÆ'¼bingen in WÃÆ'¼rttemberg, concerns about Kepler's perceived Calvinist falsehood that violates the Augsburg Confession and Formula Concord prevent its return. The University of Padua - on the recommendation of Galileo departing - seeks Kepler to fill professor of mathematics, but Kepler, preferring to keep his family in the German territory, went to Austria to set up a position as teacher and district mathematician in Linz. However, Barbara relapsed and died shortly after Kepler's return.

Kepler postponed his move to Linz and remained in Prague until Rudolph's death in early 1612, though between political upheaval, religious tension, and family tragedy (along with legal disputes over his wife's land), Kepler was unable to conduct research. Instead, he united a chronology text, Eclogae Chronicae , from correspondence and previous work. After a succession as Holy Roman Emperor, Matthias reasserted Kepler's (and salary) position as an imperial mathematician but allowed him to move to Linz. Linz and elsewhere (1612-1630)

At Linz, Kepler's primary responsibility (after completing Rudolphine Tables) teaches at the district school and provides astrology and astronomy services. In his early years there, he enjoyed the financial security and religious freedom relative to his life in Prague - though he was expelled from the Eucharist by his Lutheran church for his theological objections. It was also during his time in Linz that Kepler had to deal with the allegations and final verdict of magic against his mother Katharina in the Protestant city of Leonberg. The blow, which occurred just a few years after Kepler's excommunication, was not seen as a coincidence but as a symptom of the Lutheran's full attack on Kepler.

Her first publication in Linz was De vero Anno (1613), an expanded treatise on the year of Christ's birth; he also participated in discussions about whether to introduce the calendar that Pope Gregory reformed into Protestant German territories; that year he also wrote an influential mathematical treatise Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum , in measuring the volume of a container like a wine barrel, published in 1615.

Second marriage

On October 30, 1613, Kepler married Susanna Reuttinger who was 24 years old. After the death of his first wife Barbara, Kepler has considered 11 different matches over the past two years (the formalized decision process as a marriage issue). He eventually returned to Reuttinger (the fifth game) which, he wrote, "won me with love, humble loyalty, home economy, perseverance, and the love he gave to stepchildren." The first three children of this marriage (Margareta Regina, Katharina, and Sebald) died in childhood. The other three survive to adulthood: Cordula (born 1621); Fridmar (born 1623); and Hildebert (born 1625). According to Kepler biographer, this is a much happier marriage than the first.

Epitome of Copernican Astronomy , calendar, and trial of a witch from her mother

Since completing Astronomia nova , Kepler intends to compile an astronomy textbook. In 1615, he completed the first of the three Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae ( Epitome of Copernican Astronomy ); the first volume (book I-III) was printed in 1617, the second (book IV) in 1620, and the third (book V-VII) in 1621. Regardless of its title, which refers only to heliocentrism, Kepler's textbooks culminated in his book. has an elliptical based system. The Epitome became Kepler's most influential work. It contains the three laws of planetary motion and seeks to explain the heavenly movement through physical causes. Although explicitly expanding the first two laws of planetary motion (applied to Mars in Astronomia nova ) to all the planets as well as the moons and satellites of Medicean from Jupiter, it does not explain how the elliptical orbit could be derived from observational data.

As a spinoff of Rudolphine Tables and related Ephemerides Kepler published an astrological calendar, which was very popular and helped offset the cost of producing his other works - especially when support from the imperial treasury was detained. In his calendar - six between 1617 and 1624 - Kepler predicted planetary positions and weather and political events; the latter is often not accurate, thanks to his keen understanding of contemporary political and theological tensions. In 1624, however, the increased tension and ambiguity of the prophecy meant a political problem for Kepler himself; His final calendar was burned in public in Graz.

In 1615, Ursula Reingold, a woman in a financial dispute with Kepler's brother, Christoph, claimed Kepler's mother, Katharina, had made her ill with an evil drink. The dispute increased, and in 1617 the Catharina was accused of being a sorcerer; magic experiments are relatively common in central Europe today. Beginning in August 1620, he was imprisoned for fourteen months. He was released in October 1621, in part thanks to an extensive legal defense composed by Kepler. The accusers do not have stronger evidence than rumors. Catharina was targeted by territio verbalis, a graphic description of the torture that awaited him as a wizard, in a last-ditch attempt to make him confess. Throughout the trial, Kepler postponed his other work to focus on his "harmonic theory". The result, published in 1619, is Harmonices Mundi ("Harmony of the World").

Harmonic Mundi

Kepler believes "that geometrical things have given the Creator a model to decorate the whole world." In Harmony , he attempted to explain the proportions of the natural world - particularly aspects of astronomy and astrology - in music. The central set of "harmony" is the musica universalis or "music of the spheres," which Pythagoras, Ptolemy and many others have learned before Kepler; actually, as soon as it was published Mundi Harmonices Kepler was involved in a priority dispute with Robert Fludd, who recently published his own harmonic theory.

Kepler started by exploring regular polygons and ordinary solids, including numbers that would be known as Kepler pieces. From there, he expanded his harmonic analysis on music, meteorology, and astrology; harmony resulted from the tone made by the souls of celestial bodies - and in the case of astrology, the interaction between the notes and the human soul. At the end of the work (Book V), Kepler deals with planetary movements, especially the relationship between orbital velocity and orbital distance from the Sun. A similar relationship has been used by other astronomers, but Kepler - with Tycho's data and astronomy theory itself - treats them more precisely and attaches new physical significance to them.

Among many other harmony, Kepler articulated what came to be known as the third law of planetary motion. He then tried many combinations until he discovered that (roughly) "The square of the periodic time is each other as the cube of an average distance." Although he gave this date of enlightenment (March 8, 1618), he gave no details of how he came to this conclusion. However, the broader meaning for planetary dynamics of pure kinematics law was not realized until the 1660s. When combined with Christiaan Huygens' newly discovered centrifugal power law, it enabled Isaac Newton, Edmund Halley, and perhaps Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke to independently demonstrate that the alleged gravitational attraction between the Sun and its planets decreased with the square of the distance between them. This denied the traditional assumption of scholastic physics that the forces of gravitational attraction remained constant with distance whenever applied between two bodies, as assumed by Kepler and also by Galileo in the erroneous universal law that the collapse of gravity accelerated uniformly, and also by Disciple Galileo Borrelli in mechanics its 1666 sky.

Rudolphine Tables and last years

In 1623, Kepler finally completed the Rudolphine Tables, which at the time was regarded as his main occupation. However, due to the requirements of the emperor's publishing and negotiations with the heirs of Tycho Brahe, it will not be printed until 1627. Meanwhile, religious tension - the roots of the ongoing Thirty Years War - once again put Kepler and his family in jeopardy. In 1625, the agents of the Catholic Counter-Reformation stationed most of the Kepler's library under the seal, and in 1626 the town of Linz was besieged. Kepler moved to Ulm, where he set the printing of Tables at his own expense.

In 1628, after the military success of Emperor Ferdinand's army under General Wallenstein, Kepler became an official advisor to Wallenstein. Though it was not a general court palace per se, Kepler gave astronomical calculations to Wallenstein astrologers and sometimes wrote his own horoscope. In his later years, Kepler spent much of his time traveling, from the imperial palace in Prague to Linz and Ulm to his temporary home in Sagan, and finally to Regensburg. Soon after arriving in Regensburg, Kepler fell ill. He died on November 15, 1630, and was buried there; his burial site disappeared after the Swedish army destroyed the church yard. Only a poetic epitaph written by Kepler survives:

Coelos erectile, nunc terrae metior umbras

Mens coelestis closely, corporis umbra iacet.

I measure the sky, now the shadow I measure

Skybound is the mind, grounded body leaning.

Christianity

Kepler believes that God created the cosmos regularly causing him to seek to determine and understand the laws that govern the natural world, the most in astronomy. The phrase "I only think of the mind of the Lord after Him" ​​has been attributed to him, even though this may be a written version strung from his hand:

The laws of [nature] are within the reach of the human mind; God wants us to recognize them by creating us according to their own image so we can share in our own thoughts.

Acceptance of astronomy

Kepler's planetary motion law is not immediately accepted. Some great figures like Galileo and Renà © Descartes completely ignore Kepler's Astronomia nova. Many astronomers, including Kepler's teacher, Michael Maestlin, objected to Kepler's introduction of physics into astronomy. Some compromise positions are adopted. The Isma Bullialdus receives an elliptical orbit but replaces Kepler's territorial laws with a uniform movement with respect to the empty focus of the ellipse, while Seth Ward uses an elliptical orbit with motion defined by equant.

Some astronomers tested Kepler's theory, and its various modifications, to astronomical observations. Two transits of Venus and Mercury throughout the solar surface provide sensitive tests to the theory, under circumstances where these planets are usually not observable. In the case of Mercury's transit in 1631, Kepler was very unsure of parameters for Mercury, and advised observers to look for transits the day before and after the expected date. Pierre Gassendi observed the transit on an estimated date, confirmation of Kepler's prediction. This is the first observation of transit from Mercury. However, his attempt to observe the Venus transit only one month later was unsuccessful due to imprecision in Rudolphine Tables. Gassendi did not realize that it was invisible from most of Europe, including Paris. Jeremiah Horrocks, who observed the transit of Venus in 1639, has used his own observations to adjust the Keplerian model parameters, estimate the transit, and then build the equipment to observe transit. He remains a strong supporter of the Keplerian model.

The Epitome of Copernican Astronomy was read by astronomers across Europe, and after Kepler's death, it was the main vehicle for spreading Kepler's ideas. In the period 1630 - 1650, this book was the most widely used astronomy book, winning many people who turned to elliptical astronomy. However, some adopted his ideas on a physical basis for the celestial movement. At the end of the seventeenth century, a number of physical astronomical theories derived from Kepler's work - especially the works of Giovanni Alfonso Borelli and Robert Hooke - began to combine interesting forces (though not the quasi-spiritual motives postulated by Kepler) and Cartesian. concept of inertia. This culminated in Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica (1687), in which Newton derived Kepler's planetary law from a power-based universal theory of gravity.

Historical and cultural heritage

History of science

Beyond its role in the historical development of astronomy and natural philosophy, Kepler has been towering in the philosophy and historiography of science. Kepler and his laws of motion were essential to the early history of astronomy such as Jean-ÃÆ' â € ° tienne Montucla's 1758 Histoire des mathÃÆ' Ã… © matiques and Jean-Baptiste Delambre's 1821 Histoire de l'astronomie moderne . These and other histories written from the perspective of the Enlightenment treat the Kepler's metaphysical and religious argument with skepticism and rejection, but then the Romanian natural philosopher sees these elements as central to his success. William Whewell, in his influential history of Inductive Science in 1837, discovered Kepler as an archetypal inductive scientific genius; in his book Inductive Philosophy of Science in 1840, Whewell made Kepler a manifestation of the most advanced scientific method. Similarly, Ernst Friedrich Apelt - who first studied extensively the Kepler script, after its purchase by Catherine the Great - identified Kepler as the key to the "science revolution". Apelt, who saw Kepler's mathematics, aesthetic sensitivity, physical ideas, and theology as part of an integrated system of thought, produced the first extended analysis of Kepler's life and work.

Alexandre KoyrÃÆ' © © 's work on Kepler was, after Apelt, the first major milestone in the interpretation of Kepler's cosmological history and its influence. In the 1930s and 1940s, Koyrà ©  ©, and a number of others in the first generation of professional historians of science, described the "Scientific Revolution" as a major event in the history of science, and Kepler as a central figure (perhaps) in the revolution. KoyrÃÆ'  © puts Kepler's theory, not his empirical work, at the center of intellectual transformation from the ancient to the modern worldview. Since the 1960s, Kepler's pioneering volume has historically grown rapidly, including the study of astrology and meteorology, his geometrical methods, his religious viewing role in his work, literary and rhetorical methods, his interaction with the wider culture and philosophy. the flow of time, and even his role as a science historian.

The philosophers of science - such as Charles Sanders Peirce, Norwood Russell Hanson, Stephen Toulmin, and Karl Popper - have repeatedly turned to Kepler: examples of discrepancies, analogical reasoning, forgery, and many other philosophical concepts have been found in Kepler's work. Physicist Wolfgang Pauli even used Kepler's priority dispute with Robert Fludd to explore the implications of analytical psychology on scientific inquiry.

Editions and translations

The modern translation of a number of Kepler's books emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the systematic publication of his collected works beginning in 1937 (and nearing completion in the early 21st century).

An edition in eight volumes, Kepleri Opera omnia, was prepared by Christian Frisch (1807-1881), during 1858 to 1871, on the occasion of Kepler's 300th birthday. The Frisch edition includes only Kepler Latin, with Latin commentary.

The new edition is planned to begin in 1914 by Walther von Dyck (1856-1934). Dyck collects copies of Kepler's unitedited manuscripts, using international diplomatic contacts to convince the Soviet government to lend him manuscripts kept in Leningrad for photographic reproduction. These manuscripts contain several works by Kepler that are not yet available for Frisch. Dyck's photographs remain the basis for the modern edition of the unpublished Kepler texts.

Max Caspar (1880-1956) published the German translation of Kepler's Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1923. Both Dyck and Caspar were influenced in their interest in Kepler by mathematician Alexander von Brill (1842-1935). Caspar became Dyck's collaborator, replacing him as project leader in 1934, establishing Kepler-Kommission the following year. Aided by Martha List (1908-1992) and Franz Hammer (1898-1979), Caspar continued his editorial work during World War II. Max Caspar also published Kepler's biography in 1948. The commission was then led by Volker Bialas (during 1976-2003) and Ulrich Grigull (during 1984-1999) and Roland Bulirsch (1998-2014).

Popular science and historical fiction

Kepler has acquired the popular image as an icon of scientific modernity and a man prematurely; sivitas popularizer Carl Sagan describes it as "the first astrophysicist and the last science forecaster."

The debate over Kepler's place in the Scientific Revolution has produced a wide range of philosophical and popular treatments. One of the most influential was Arthur Koestler's 1959 The Sleepwalkers , in which Kepler is clearly a hero (both morally and theologically or intellectually) from the revolution.

The historic novel is well received, if fantasy, by John Banville, Kepler (1981), explores many of the themes developed in Koestler's non-fiction narrative and in the philosophy of science. Somewhat more fantastic is the latest nonfiction work, Heavenly Intrigue (2004), indicating that Kepler killed Tycho Brahe to gain access to his data.

Veneration and eponimi

In Austria, Kepler left a historical heritage that he was one of the silver collector's silver coins: Kepler's silver coin Johannes Kepler 10 euros, printed on September 10, 2002. The reverse side of the coin has a portrait of Kepler. , who spent some time teaching in Graz and the surrounding area. Kepler became acquainted with Prince Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg personally, and he may have influenced the construction of Eggenberg Castle (the motif of the front of the coin). In front of him on coins is a model of nested spheres and polyhedra of Mysterium Cosmographicum .

German composer Paul Hindemith wrote an opera about Kepler titled Die Harmonie der Welt , and a symphony of the same name came from music for opera. Philip Glass wrote an opera named Kepler based on the life of Kepler (2009).

Kepler was honored with Nicolaus Copernicus with a feast on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA) on May 23.

Named directly for Kepler's contribution to science is Kepler's planetary law, Supernova Kepler (Supernova 1604, which he observes and describes) and Kepler Solids, a set of geometric constructions, two of which are described by him, and Kepler's allegations of packing spheres.

• In astronomy: The Keplerus lunar crater ( Keplerus , named by Giovanni Riccioli, 1651), asteroid 1134 Kepler (1929), Kepler (crater on Mars) (1973), Kepler Site The launch for the model rocket (2001), Kepler Mission, a space photometer launched by NASA in 2009, Johannes Kepler ATV (Automated Transfer Vehicle was launched to supply the ISS in 2011).
• Educational institutions: Johannes Kepler University of Linz (1975), Kepler College (Seattle, Washington), in addition to several basic and secondary education institutions, such as Johannes Kepler Grammar School, where Kepler lives in Prague, and < Kepler Gymnasium , TÃÆ'¼bingen
• The street or square named after him: Keplerplatz Vienna (Vienna U-Bahn station), KeplerstraÃÆ'Ÿe in Hanau near Frankfurt am Main, KeplerstraÃÆ'Ÿe in Munich, Germany, KeplerstraÃÆ'Ÿe and KeplerbrÃÆ'¼cke in Graz, Austria , Keplerova ulice in Prague.
• Kepler Mountains and Kepler Line in Fiordland National Park, South Island, New Zealand; Kepler Challenge (1988).
• Kepler, a high end graphics processing microarchitecture introduced by Nvidia in 2012.

Work

• Mysterium Cosmographicum ( Holy Mystery of the Cosmos ) (1596)
• De Fundamentis Astrologiae Certioribus (On the Stronger Fundamentals of Astrology ; 1601)
• Astronomiae Pars Optica ( Astronomical Optical Section ) (1604)
• De Stella nova di pede Serpentarii ( On the New Star at Ophiuchus Foot ) (1606)
• Astronomia nova ( New Astronomy ) (1609)
• Tertius Interveniens ( Third Party Interventions ) (1610)
• Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo ( Conversation with Starry Messenger ) (1610)
• Dioptrice (1611)
• De nive sexangula On Snowflake Six-Cornered ) (1611)
• De vero Anno, quet aeternus Dei Filius naturam man in Utero benedictae Virginis Mariae assumpsit (1614)
• Eclogae Chronicae (1615, published with Dissertatio cum Nuncio Sidereo )
• Nova stereometria doliorum vinariorum ( New Wine Barter Stereometry ) (1615)
• Ephemerides nouae motuum coelestium (1617-30)
Epitome of Copernican Astronomy (published in three parts from 1618 to 1621)
• Harmonic Mundi ( Harmony of the Worlds ) (1619)
• Mysterium cosmographicum ( Holy Mystery of the Cosmos ), 2nd edition (1621)
• Tabulae Rudolphinae ( Rudolphine Tables ) (1627)
• Somnium ( Dream ) (1634)

The critical edition of the works collected by Kepler (Johannes Kepler Gesammelte Werke , KGW) in 22 volumes is being edited by Kepler-Kommission (founded 1935) on behalf of Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.

Vol. 1: Mysterium Cosmographicum. De Stella Nova . Ed. M. Caspar. 1938, second edition. 1993. ISBN Paperback 3-406-01639-1.

Vol. 2: Astronomiae pars optica . Ed. F. Hammer. 1939, ISBN Paperback 3-406-01641-3.

Vol. 3: Astronomy Nova. Ed. M. Caspar. 1937. IV, 487 p. 2. ed. 1990. ISBN Paperback 3-406-01643-X. Semi-parchment ISBN 3-406-01642-1.

Vol. 4: Kleinere Schriften 1602-1611. Dioptrice . Ed. M. Caspar, F. Hammer. 1941. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01644-8.

Vol. 5: Chronologische Schriften . Ed. F. Hammer. 1953. Not printed.

Vol. 6: Harmonice Mundi . Ed. M. Caspar. 1940, second edition. 1981, ISBN 3-406-01648-0.

Vol. 7: Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae . Ed. M. Caspar. 1953, second edition. 1991. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01650-2, ISBN Paperback 3-406-01651-0.

Vol. 8: Mysterium Cosmographicum. Editio Altera cum notis. De Cometis. Hyperaspistes . Comment F. Hammer. 1955. ISBN Paperback 3-406-01653-7.

Vol 9: Mathematische Schriften . Ed. F. Hammer. 1955, second edition. 1999. Outside of print.

Vol. 10: Tabulae Rudolphinae . Ed. F. Hammer. 1969. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01656-1.

Vol. 11.1: Ephemerides novae motuum coelestium . Comment V. Bialas. 1983. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01658-8, ISBN Paperback 3-406-01659-6.

Vol. 11.2: Calendaria et Prognostica. Astronomica minora. Somnium Commentary V. Bialas, H. GrÃÆ'¶ssing. 1993. ISBN 3-406-37510-3, ISBN Reverse 3-406-37511-1.

Vol. 12: Theologica. HexenprozeÃÆ'Ÿ. Tacitus-ÃÆ'Ã… "is concealed. Gedichte . Commentary J. HÃÆ'¼bner, H. GrÃÆ'¶ssing, F. Boockmann, F. Seck. Directed by V. Bialas. 1990. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01660-X, ISBN Paperback 3-406-01661-8.

• Vols. 13-18: Letters:

Vol. 13: Briefe 1590-1599 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1945. 432 p. ISBN: 3-406-01663-4.

Vol. 14: Briefe 1599-1603 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1949. Outside of print. 2nd Edition. in preparation.

Vol 15: Briefe 1604-1607 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1951. 2nd ed. 1995. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01667-7.

Vol. 16: Briefe 1607-1611 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1954. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01668-5.

Vol. 17: Briefe 1612-1620 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1955. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01671-5.

Vol. 18: Briefe 1620-1630 . Ed. M. Caspar. 1959. ISBNÃ, 3-406-01672-3.

Vol. 19: Dokumente zu Leben und Werk . List of M Comments. 1975. ISBN 978-3-406-01674-5.

Vols. 20-21: manuscript

Vol. 20.1: Manuscripta astronomica (I). Apologia, De motu Terrae, Hipparchus etc. Comment V. Bialas. 1988. ISBNÃ, 3-406-31501-1. ISBN Paperback 3-406-31502-X.

Vol. 20.2: Manuscripta astronomica (II). Commentaria in Theoriam Martis . Comment V. Bialas. 1998. ISBN Paperback 3-406-40593-2.

Vol. 21.1: Manuscripta astronomica (III) et mathematica. De Calendario Gregoriano . In preparation.

Vol. 21.2: Manuscripta varia . In preparation.

Vol. 22: General index, in preparation.

Source of the article : Wikipedia