Galileo Galilei ( Italian: Ã, [? ali'l ?: o? ali'l? ] ; 15 February 1564 - 8 January 1642) is an Italian polymath. Galileo was a central figure in the transition from natural philosophy to modern science and in the transformation of the scientific Renaissance into a scientific revolution.
Galileo's determination of heliocentrism and Copernicanism became controversial during his lifetime, when most subscribed to either the geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubt the heliocentrism in the absence of observed star parallax. This problem was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that heliocentrism is "foolish and unreasonable in philosophy, and is officially heretical because it is explicitly contradictory in many places of Scripture." Galileo later defended his view in the Dialogue on the Two Heads of the World System (1632), which apparently attacked Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had supported Galileo up to this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "deeply suspicious of heresy", and forced to withdraw. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. While under house arrest, he wrote one of his most famous works, Two New Sciences , in which he summarized the work he had done several decades earlier on two sciences now called kinematics and material strength.
Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile movement and also work in applied science and technology, describing the properties of pendulums and "hydrostatic balance", creating thermos and various military compasses, and using telescopes for scientific observations of heavenly bodies. His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the Venus phase, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter, the observation of Saturn's rings (though he can not see them well enough to distinguish their true nature) and analysis of sunspots..
Known for his work as astronomer, physicist, engineer, philosopher, and mathematician, Galileo has been called "the father of observational astronomy", "the father of modern physics", "the father of the scientific method", and even the "father" of science ".
Video Galileo Galilei
Early life and family
Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of Duchy of Florence), Italy, on 15 February 1564, the first child of six children from Vincenzo Galilei, renowned composer, composer and music, and Giulia (nÃÆ' Â © e Ammannati) , who married in 1562. Galileo became a lieutenant lieutenant himself and will learn early on from his father a skepticism for established authority, measured or quantified experimental value, rewards for time or periodic or musical rhythms, such as and the expected results of the combination mathematics and experiments.
Three of Galileo's five siblings survived the baby. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a prominent leno and composer even though he contributed to the financial burden during Galileo's youth. Michelangelo could not contribute a fair share of the dowhat his father promised his brother-in-law, who would then seek to find a legal solution for the payment to be paid. Michelangelo also sometimes had to borrow money from Galileo to support his musical endeavors and visits. This financial burden may have contributed to Galileo's initial desire to develop inventions that would provide him with additional income.
When Galileo Galilei was eight years old, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years. He was later educated at Vallombrosa Monastery, about 30 km southeast of Florence.
Name
The Galilei family name comes from the name of a given ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, a physician, professor and politician who lived in Florence from 1370 to 1450; his descendants had changed their surname from Bonaiuti (or Buonaiuti) to Galilei in his honor by the end of the 14th century. Galileo Bonaiuti is buried in the same church, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, where some 200 years later his more famous Galileo Galilei descendants were also buried.
It was common for the sixteenth-century Tuscan families to name the eldest son after the parents' surname. Therefore, Galileo Galilei is not always named after his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The name of the Italian man named "Galileo" (and from there the clan "Galilei") comes from the Latin "Galilaeus", which means "Galilee", a region that is biblically significant in Northern Israel.
The biblical root of the Galileo name and surname is the subject of the famous game. In 1614, during Galileo's affair, one of Galileo's opponents, Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered a controversial and influential sermon to Galileo. In it he makes points quoting Acts 1:11 , "Men of Galilee, why do you stand looking up into the sky?".
Children
Despite being a truly pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children outside marriage with Marina Gamba. They have two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born in 1601), and a son, Vincenzo (born in 1606).
Because of their illegitimate birth, their father thought the girls could not be defeated, if they did not ask for a very expensive support or dowry, which would resemble Galileo's previous vast financial problems with his two sisters. Their only viable alternative is religious life. Both girls were accepted by the San Matteo monastery in Arcetri and lived there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name of Maria Celeste upon entering the monastery. He died on April 2, 1634, and was buried with Galileo at the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took Sister Arcangela's name and was sick for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimized as Galileo's legitimate heir and married Sestilia Bocchineri.
Maps Galileo Galilei
Career as a scientist
Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at the urging of his father, he even enrolled at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. In 1581, while he was studying medicine, he saw a hanging swing lamp, which the air currents shifted to swing in a larger and smaller arc. To him, it seems, compared to his heartbeat, that the candlesticks take the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far the swing swings. When he returns home, he prepares two pendulums of the same length and swings one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and finds that they continue to unite the time. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, nearly a hundred years later, that the tautochrone character of the swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece. Up to this point, Galileo was deliberately kept away from mathematics, because a doctor earned more than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending lectures on geometry, he spoke to his reluctant father to let him study mathematics and natural philosophy rather than drugs. He created a thermos, the pioneer of a thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book about the design of hydrostatic balance he found (which first brought him to the attention of the scientific world). Galileo also learned disegno , a term that included art, and, in 1588, obtained an instructor's position at the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, a teaching and chiaroscuro perspective. Inspired by the city's artistic traditions and works of Renaissance artists, Galileo gained an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he started a lifelong friendship with painter Florentine Cigoli, which included observing Galileo's moon in one of his paintings.
In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this period, Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (eg, motion kinematics and astronomy) as well as practically applied science (eg, material strength and pioneering telescope). His various interests included the study of astrology, which at that time was a discipline associated with the study of mathematics and astronomy.
Galileo, Kepler, and wave theory
Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 that the Copernican system can not be maintained without "the actual physical demonstration that the sun does not surround the earth but the earth surrounds the sun". Galileo considers his theory of ups and downs to provide physical evidence of the necessary earth movements. This theory is so important to him that he was originally meant to grant his rights Dialog on the Two World Head System Dialogue on Ebb and the Flow of the Sea . References to pairs have been removed from the title by the Inquisition order.
For Galileo, the ups and downs were caused by spills of alternating water at sea as the point on Earth's surface accelerated and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis and revolutions around the Sun. He circulated his first account of the wave in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His theory provides the first insight into the importance of the shape of the ocean basin in the size and timing of the tides; he noted correctly, for example, for the negligible tides along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the end. As a general explanation of the causes of tides, his theory fails.
If this theory is true, there will be only one high pair per day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this deficiency because there were two high-pairs daily in Venice, not one, about twelve hours. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other factors. Against the assertion that Galileo deceived in making this argument, Albert Einstein expressed the view that Galileo developed an "interesting argument" and received them uncritically from the desire for physical proof of the Earth's movement. Galileo dismissed the idea, held by contemporary Johannes Kepler, that the moon caused the ups and downs. (Galileo is also not interested in the Kepler elliptical orbit of the planets.)
Controversy over comet and The Assayer
In 1619, Galileo became involved in the controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of mathematics at Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began as a dispute over the nature of the comet, but by the time Galileo had published The Assayer Il Saggiatore ) in 1623, his final salvo was in dispute, it became a much wider controversy over nature of science itself. The title page of this book describes Galileo as the philosopher and "Matematico Primario" of the Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Since the Assayer contains so many Galileo ideas about how science should be trained, it has been referred to as its scientific manifesto. In early 1619, Father Grassi anonymously published a pamphlet, The Astronomy Dispute on the Three Comets of the Year 1618, which discussed the nature of comets that appeared late November of the previous year. Grassi concluded that the comet was a fiery body that had moved along a large circular segment with a constant distance from the earth, and because the comet was moving in the sky slower than the moon, it must have been farther from the moon.
Grassi's argument and conclusions are criticized in the next article, The Discourse of Comet, published under the name of one of Galileo's disciples, a Firenze lawyer named Mario Guiducci, though most of it was written by Galileo himself. Galileo and Guiducci offer no definitive theories about the nature of their own comets even though they do provide some provisional conjectures that are now known to be false. In his opening passage, Galileo and Guiducci Discourse haphazardly insult the Jesuit Christopher Scheiner, and various obscene comments about Collegio Romano's professors spread throughout the workplace. The Jesuits were offended, and Grassi immediately responded with his own polemical channel, The Astronomical and Philosophical Balance, under the pseudonym Lothario Sarsio Sigensano, claiming to be one of his own disciples.
The Assayer is Galileo's devastating reprieve against the Astronomical Balance . It has been widely recognized as a work of polemical literature, in which the "Sarsi" argument is the target of a derogatory scorn. It was greeted with a warm welcome, and greatly delighted the new Pope, Urban VIII, who had been ordained for him. In Rome, in the previous decade, Barberini, Urban VIII of the future, had descended on the side of Galileo and the Lincean Academy.
Galileo's dispute with Grassi permanently alienated many of the Jesuits previously sympathetic to his ideas, and Galileo and his friends were convinced that these Jesuits were responsible for his later condemnation. However, the evidence for this is most vague.
Controversy over heliocentrism
In the Christian world prior to the Galileo conflict with the Church, the majority of educated people subscribe to both the Aristotelian geocentric view that the earth is the center of the universe and that all celestial bodies revolve around the Earth, or Tychonic systems that combine geocentrism. with heliocentrism. However, after the death of Copernicus and before Galileo, heliocentrism was relatively uncontroversial; Copernicus's work was used by Pope Gregory XIII to reform the calendar in 1582.
Opposition to heliocentrism and Galileo's writings combine religious and scientific objections and are triggered by political events. Scientific opposition comes from Tycho Brahe and others and arises from the fact that, if heliocentrism is true, an annual parallax of stars should be observed, even if none exist. Copernicus has correctly postulated that the parallax can be ignored because the stars are so far away. However, Brahe has responded, for the stars appear to have measurable dimensions, if the stars are far away, they will become giants, and in fact far greater than the Sun or other celestial bodies. In the Brahe system, on the contrary, the stars are slightly farther than Saturn, and the Sun and stars are proportional in size.
Religious opposition to heliocentrism arises from biblical references like Psalm 93: 1, 96:10, and 1 Chronicles 16:30 which includes the text that says "the world is established, immovable." In the same way, Psalm 104: 5 says, "God rules the earth on its foundations, it can never be moved." Furthermore, Ecclesiastes 1: 5 states that "And the sun rises and sets and returns to its place."
Galileo defended heliocentrism based on his astronomical observations in 1609 ( Sidereus Nuncius 1610). In December 1613, the Grand Duchess Christina of Florence confronted one of Galileo's friends and followers, Benedetto Castelli, with a biblical objection against the movement of the earth. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, this is done in a friendly and friendly way, out of curiosity. Prompted by this incident, Galileo wrote a letter to Castelli in which he argued that heliocentrism is in fact not contrary to the biblical text, and that the Bible is an authority on faith and morals, not on science. This letter is not published, but it is widely circulated.
In 1615, Galileo's account of heliocentrism was submitted to the Roman Inquisition by Father Niccolo Lorini, who claimed that Galileo and his followers sought to reinterpret the Bible, seen as a violation of the Council of Trent and appear dangerous as Protestantism. Lorini specifically quoted Galileo's letter to Castelli. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself and his Copernicus and biblical ideas. Early in 1616, Monsignor Francesco Ingoli began a debate with Galileo, sending him an essay contesting the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay had been instrumental in the action against the Copernicanism that followed it. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli may have been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provides a "direct basis" for the Inquisition action. The essay focuses on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It was primarily borrowed from Tycho Brahe's argument, and it notes Brahe's argument that heliocentrism requires stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli writes that a great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves... stars still have that size, because they may outrank or equal the size of the Earth's orbital circle itself." This essay also incorporates four theological arguments, but Ingoli suggests Galileo focuses on physical and mathematical arguments, and he does not mention Galileo's biblical ideas. In February 1616, the Inquisitorial Commission declared that heliocentrism was "stupid and unreasonable in philosophy, and officially heretical because it is explicitly contradictory in many places, the sense of Scripture." The Inquisition found that the idea of ​​the Earth movement "received the same judgment in philosophy and... in respect of theological truth, it is at least wrong in faith". (The original documents of the Inquisitorial commission are made widely available by 2014.)
Pope Paul V instructed Cardinal Bellarmine to convey these findings to Galileo, and to instruct him to abandon the notion that heliocentrism is physically correct. On February 26, Galileo was summoned to Bellarmine's residence and ordered:
... to abandon it completely... the notion that the sun stands at the center of the world and the earth moves, and further not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way, either orally or in writing.
The Congregation's Decision of the Index prohibits Copernicus's De Revolutionibus and other heliocentric works up to the correction. Bellarmine's instructions do not forbid Galileo to discuss heliocentrism as a mathematical and philosophical idea, as long as he does not advocate his physical truth.
For the next decade, Galileo remains far from controversial. He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by Cardinal Maffeo Barberini's election as Pope Urban VIII in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed Galileo's curse in 1616. Galileo's generated book, Dialogue Concerning Two Major World Systems , published in 1632, with the official authorization of the Inquisition and the papal permission.
Earlier, Pope Urban VIII had personally asked Galileo to give an argument for and against heliocentrism in this book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own view of the matter was included in Galileo's book. Only the last request fulfilled by Galileo.
Whether inadvertently or inadvertently, Simplicio, Aristotle's geocentric defender in the Dialogues of Two Main World Systems , is often trapped in his own mistake and is sometimes regarded as a fool. Indeed, although Galileo stated in his book's introduction that this character was named after the famous Aristotelian philosopher (Simplicius in Latin, "Simplicio" in Italian), the name "Simplicio" in Italian also had a "simpleton" connotation. This Simplicio depiction makes the Dialogue About Two Major World Systems appearing as an advocacy book: an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and Copernican's defense of the theory. Unfortunately for his relationship with the Pope, Galileo put Urban VIII's words into Simplicio's mouth.
Most historians agree that Galileo did not act evil and felt blinded by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not regard the public suspicion as light, or Copernican advocacy.
Galileo had alienated one of his greatest and most powerful advocates, the Pope, and was called to Rome to defend his writings in September 1632. He finally arrived in February 1633 and was brought before the inquisitor Vincenzo Maculani to be prosecuted. Throughout his trial, Galileo firmly declared that since 1616 he faithfully kept his promise not to hold back any of the criticisms, and at first he refused and even defended them. However, he was eventually convinced to admit that, contrary to his true intentions, a reader of his Dialogue could get the impression that it was meant to be a defense of Copernicanism. Considering Galileo's somewhat preposterous denial that he once held Copernicus's ideas after 1616 or was ever intended to defend them in the Dialogue, his final interrogation, in July 1633, ended up threatened with torture if he did not tell the truth, but he defends his rejection despite threats.
The Inquisition sentence was delivered on 22 June. That's in three important sections:
- Galileo is found "very suspicious of heresy", that is, because it holds the notion that the Sun is not moving at the center of the universe, that the Earth is not at its center and moving, and this one may have and defend opinion as possibly after declared contrary to Scripture. He was asked to "abjure, cursed and hated" that opinion.
- He was sentenced to a formal prison for the pleasures of the Inquisition. The next day, this was alleviated into house arrest, which remained underneath for the rest of his life.
- The annoying dialogue is prohibited; and in an act not announced at the hearing, the publication of his work is prohibited, including those he writes in the future.
According to popular legend, after repeating his theory that the Earth is moving around the Sun, Galileo allegedly echoes the rebel sentence "But it moves" . A 1640s painting by Spanish painter Bartolomà © Esteban Murillo or an artist from his school, where the words were hidden until a restoration work in 1911, depicts a imprisoned Galileo apparently staring at the words "E pur si muove" written on the wall of his dungeon. The earliest written account known about legend dates from the 1st century after his death, but Stillman Drake writes "there is no doubt now that the famous words have been linked with Galileo before his death".
After a period with the friendly Ascanio Piccolomini (Archbishop of Siena), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa in Arcetri near Florence in 1634, where he spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Galileo was instructed to read the seven penitential psalms once a week for the next three years. However, his daughter Maria Celeste relieves her of the burden after obtaining ecclesiastical permission to take over her.
At that time Galileo was under house arrest that he dedicated his time to one of his best works, Two New Sciences . Here he summarized the work he had done about forty years earlier, on two sciences now called kinematics and material forces, published in the Netherlands to avoid censorship. This book received high praise from Albert Einstein. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called the "father of modern physics". He was completely blind in 1638 and suffered a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was allowed to travel to Florence for medical advice.
Dava Sobel argues that before the judgment and judgment of Galileo 1633 of heresy, Pope Urban VIII became preoccupied with court intrigue and state affairs, and began to fear persecution or threats to his own life. In this context, Sobel argues that Galileo's problem was communicated to the pope by the man in court and Galileo's enemies. After being accused of being weak in defending the church, Urban reacted against Galileo out of anger and fear.
Death
Galileo continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering a fever and heart palpitations, he died on January 8, 1642, aged 77 years. The Grand Duke of Tuscany, Ferdinando II, wanted to bury it in the main body of the Basilica of Santa Croce, beside the grave of his father and other ancestors, and set up a marble tomb in his honor.
However, these plans were canceled, after Pope Urban VIII and his nephew, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, protested, because Galileo had been condemned by the Catholic Church for "harsh suspicion of heresy". Instead, he was buried in a small room beside the novice chapel at the end of the corridor from the southern part of the basilica to the sacristy. He was buried again in the main body of the basilica in 1737 after a monument was erected there in his honor; during this movement, three fingers and one tooth are removed from his body. One of these fingers, the middle finger of Galileo's right hand, is currently on display at the Museo Galileo in Florence, Italy.
Scientific contribution
Scientific method
Galileo made an original contribution to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiments and mathematics. More typical of science at the time was William Gilbert's qualitative study, about magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a leech and musical theologian, has conducted experiments that establish perhaps the oldest known non-linear relationship in physics: for strings stretched, the pitch varies as the square root of the voltage. This observation lies within the framework of the musical traditions of Pythagoras, well-known by instrument makers, including the fact that groupings of strings with the sum total produce harmonious scales. Thus, the limited number of mathematics has long been related to music and physical science, and the young Galileo could see his father's own observations broadening that tradition.
Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that natural law is mathematical. In The Assayer , he writes "Philosophy is written in this great book, the universe... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures; mathematically is a further development of the tradition used by the late scholastic natural philosopher, whom Galileo studied when he studied philosophy. His work marks another step toward the final separation of science from philosophy and religion; great development in human thought. He is often willing to change his views according to his observations. To perform the experiment, Galileo must set the standard length and time, so measurements made on different days and in different labs can be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provides a reliable basis for confirming mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.
Galileo demonstrates the modern appreciation for the precise relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understands the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of ordinate (y) varying as the square of absciss (x). Galilei further asserts that the parabola is the ideal theoretical path of a projectile that is uniformly accelerated without any air or other obstacles. He acknowledges that there is a limit to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that projectile trajectories of size comparable to the Earth may not be parabolic, but he retains that for the range up to the artillery range of his day, the deviation of the projectile path from the parabola will be very few. Astronomy
Only on the basis of an uncertain description of the first practical telescope that Hans Lippershey tried patenting in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, the following year, made a telescope with 3x magnification. He then created an enhanced version with magnification up to about 30x. With the Galilean telescope, observers can see enlarged and erect images on earth - it is what is commonly known as terrestrial telescopes or binoculars. He can also use it to observe the sky; for a while he is one of those who can make a telescope good enough for that purpose. On August 25, 1609, he demonstrated one of the earliest telescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to the Venetian lawmakers. The telescope is also a lucrative side to Galileo, who sells it to merchants who find it useful both in the ocean and as a merchandise. He published his first telescopic astronomical observation in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius Starry Messenger ( Starry Messenger ).
Supernova Kepler
Tycho and others have observed the supernova in 1572. The Epistle of Ottavio Brenzoni dated January 15, 1605 to Galileo brought a supernova 1572 and a less than brilliant nova from 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo observed and discussed Kepler's supernova in 1604. Since these new stars do not feature detectable diurnal parallax, Galileo concludes that they are distant stars, and, therefore, deny Aristotle's belief in the eternity of the heavens.
Moon of Jupiter
On January 7, 1610, Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, completely invisible to their dwarfs", all close to Jupiter, and lying in a straight line through it. Observations on subsequent nights indicate that the positions of these stars relative to Jupiter change in unexplained ways if they are truly fixed stars. On January 10, Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation he claimed to be his concealment behind Jupiter. Within days, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had found three of Jupiter's four largest moons. He found the fourth on January 13th. Galileo named the four-star Medicean group, in honor of his future patron, Cosimo II de 'Medici, Duke of Tuscany, and three of Cosimo's brothers. But lately the astronomers changed their name the Galilean satellite in honor of its discoverer. These satellites are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto.
His observations of the Jupiter satellite led to a revolution in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting incompatible with the principles of Aristotelian cosmology, which states that all heavenly bodies must surround the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe. that Galileo could find such a thing. His observations were confirmed by the observatory of Christopher Clavius ​​and he received a hero's welcome when he visited Rome in 1611. Galileo continued to observe satellites for the next eighteen months, and by mid-1611 he had obtained very accurate estimates for their period. - an achievement Kepler believed was impossible.
Venus, Saturn, and Neptune
From September 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibited a series of phases similar to the Moon. The heliocentric model of the solar system developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicts that all phases will be seen since Venus's orbit around the Sun will cause an enlightened hemisphere to confront the Earth while on the opposite side of the Sun and to confront it. Earth when it is on the side of the Earth Sun. On the other hand, in Ptolemy's geocentric model it is impossible for any planetary orbit to bypass the ball sheath that carries the Sun. Traditionally, Venus's orbit is placed completely on the near side of the Sun, where it can show only the crescent and new phases. It was, however, also possible to put fully on the far side of the Sun, where it could show only gibbous and full phases. After the Galileo telescope's observation of the crescent moon phase, full and full of Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. Thus at the beginning of the 17th century, as a result of its discovery, the vast majority of astronomers turned to one of the various models of geo-heliocentric planets, such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models, each with or without daily rotation. Earth. All of this has the virtue of explaining Venus's phase without representatives of the 'rebuttal' of full heliocentrism predictions about the parallax of stars. Galileo's discovery of the Venus phase is thus arguably his most obvious contribution practically effecting the two-stage transition from full geocentrism to full heliocentrism through geo-heliocentrism.
Galileo looked at the planet Saturn, and at first thought it was a ring to the planet, thought it was a three-body system. As he observes the planet later, Saturn's rings are directly oriented to Earth, causing him to think that two bodies have disappeared. The ring reappears when he observes the planet in 1616, further confusing it.
Galileo also observed the planet Neptune in 1612. It appeared in his notebook as one of many dim stars of mediocrity. He does not realize that it is a planet, but he records his movements relative to the stars before losing track.
Sunspots
Galileo made the study of the naked eye and telescopic of sunspots. Their existence creates other difficulties with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as proposed in orthodox Aristotelian sky physics. Clear yearly variations in their tracks, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612-1613, also provide strong arguments against the Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe. A dispute about the priorities claimed in the discovery of sunspots, and in their interpretation, caused Galileo to experience a long and bitter feud with Jesuit Christoph Scheiner. In the middle is Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner has announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his opinion. In fact, there is little doubt that both were beaten by David Fabricius and his son Johannes.
Month
Before Galileo built his telescope version, Thomas Harriot, a British mathematician and explorer, had used what he called a "perspective tube" to observe the moon. Reporting his observations, Harriot notes just "strange spottednesse" in the waning of the crescent moon, but does not know the cause. Galileo, partly because of his art training and his knowledge of chiaroscuro, has understood the pattern of light and shadow, in fact, is a topographic marker. Although not the only person to observe the moon through a telescope, Galileo is the first to deduce the uneven cause of fading as the light occlusion of the moon and crater mountains. In his studies, he also made a topographic chart, estimating the height of the mountains. The moon is not what has long been considered a perfectly translucent field, as Aristotle claims, and is hardly the first "planet", "the eternal pearl to ascend to the heavenly empirment", as Dante proposes. Galileo is sometimes credited with the discovery of moon libration at latitude in 1632, though Thomas Harriot or William Gilbert may have done it before.
Milky Way and stars
Galileo observed the Milky Way, previously believed to be vague, and found it to be many stars packed so dense that they emerged from Earth into clouds. He found many other stars too far away to be seen with the naked eye. He observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Major in 1617.
In Starry Messenger, Galileo reports that the stars appear only as bright lights, essentially unchanged in appearance by the telescope, and comparing them to the planets, which telescopes reveal into discs. But shortly thereafter, in his book The Epistles of Sunspots, he reported that the telescope reveals the "fairly round" shape of stars and planets. Since then, he has continued to report that the telescope shows the star's stariness, and that the stars seen through telescopes are measured in arc diameter for a few seconds. He also devised a method to measure the size of a clear star without a telescope. As described in his Dialogue About the two Heads of the World System , his method is to hang a thin string on his line of sight to the star and measure the maximum distance from which he will completely obscure the star. From his measurement of this distance and the width of the rope, he can calculate the angle that is stared by the star at his point of view. In his Dialogue he reports that he has discovered the diameter of the first star of a star not exceeding 5 seconds, and one of the sixth magnitude becomes about 5 / 6 arcseconds. Like most astronomers of his day, Galileo did not recognize that the size of the stars he measured was false, caused by distortions and atmospheric distortions (see discs or Airy discs), and did not represent actual star sizes. However, Galileo's value is much smaller than the previous estimate of the most obvious bright star size, as made by Tycho Brahe (see Magnitude) and allows Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments as made by Tycho that these stars will have become very large for their annual parallax to become undetectable. Other astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded that smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.
Engineering
Galileo made a number of contributions to what is now known as engineering, which is different from pure physics. Between 1595 and 1598, Galileo designed and improved geometric and military compasses suitable for use by shooters and surveyors. This was extended to an earlier instrument designed by NiccolÃÆ'² Tartaglia and Guidobaldo del Monte. For shooters, it offers, in addition to new and safer ways to accurately increase canons, how to quickly calculate gunpowder for cannons of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enables the construction of every regular polygon, the calculation of the area of ​​each polygon or the circular sector, and various other calculations. Under Galileo's direction, instrument maker Marc'Antonio Mazzoleni produced more than 100 compasses, which Galileo sold (along with the instruction manuals he wrote) for 50 lira and offered instruction courses on compass usage for 120 lira.
In about 1593, Galileo built a thermometer, using the expansion and contraction of air in the bulb to move water into the tube that was installed.
In 1609, Galileo along with Englishman Thomas Harriot and others, among the first used the refracting telescope as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. The name "telescope" was created for the Galileo instrument by a Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani at a banquet held in 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo a member of the Accademia dei Lincei. The name comes from the Greek tele = 'remote' and skopein = 'to see or see'. In 1610, he used a close-range telescope to enlarge the insect parts. In 1624, Galileo had used a compound microscope. He gave one of these instruments to Cardinal Zollern in May of that year for a presentation to the Duke of Bavaria, and in September, he sent another to Prince Cesi. The Linceans played the role again in naming the "microscope" a year later when fellow members of the academy Giovanni Faber invented the word for Galileo's discovery of the Greek words ?????? ( micron ) means "small", and ??????? ( skopein ) meaning "see". The word is meant to be analogous to the "telescope". The illustrations of insects made using one of Galileo's microscopes and published in 1625, appear to have been the first clear documentation of the use of compound microscopy.
In 1612, after determining the orbital period of the Jupiter satellite, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of its orbit, one could use its position as a universal clock, and this would allow the determination of longitude. He works on this issue from time to time for the rest of his life, but the practical problem is very heavy. This method was first successfully applied by Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1681 and then used extensively for large soil surveys; this method, for example, was used for the French survey, and then by Zebulon Pike of the central western United States in 1806. For marine navigation, where fine telescopic observations were more difficult, longitude problems eventually required the development of practical portable sea chronometers such as John Harrison. At the end of his life, when completely blind, Galileo devised a breakout mechanism for the pendulum clock (called Galileo's escape), although no clock use was built until after the first full operational pendulum clock was made by Christiaan Huygens in the 1650s.
Galileo was invited on several occasions to advise on engineering schemes to ease the river floods. In 1630 Mario Guiducci might play a role in ensuring that he was consulted on a scheme by Bartolotti to cut a new channel for the Bisenzio River near Florence.
Physics
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on body movement, together with works largely independent of Kepler and Renà © ¨ Descartes, was the forerunner of classical mechanics developed by Sir Isaac Newton. Galileo did some experiments with a pendulum. It is popularly believed (thanks to biography by Vincenzo Viviani) that it began by observing the bronze hanging bronze swing in Pisa's cathedral, using the pulse as a timer. The experiment is further described in his book Two New Sciences . Galileo claims that the simple pendulum is isochronous, that its swing always takes the same amount of time, regardless of its amplitude. In fact, this is only roughly true, as Christiaan Huygens discovered. Galileo also found that the square of the period varies directly with the length of the pendulum. Galileo's son Vincenzo sketched a clock based on his father's theory in 1642. Hours were never built and, due to the large swings required by the runaway threshold, would be a poor timekeeper. (See Engineering above.)
Galileo is less known, but still believed, to be one of the first to understand the frequency of sound. By scratching the chisel at different speeds, it connects the tone of the resulting sound with the chisel path distance, the size of the frequency. In 1638, Galileo described an experimental method for measuring the speed of light by arranging that two observers, each having a lantern equipped with windows, observed each lantern at a certain distance. The first observer opens the shutter, and, secondly, upon seeing the light, immediately unlocks the lantern itself. The time between the first observer opens the shutter and sees the light from the second observer light indicating the time it takes the light to travel back and forth between the two observers. Galileo reported that when he tried this at less than a mile, he could not determine whether the light appeared instantly. Sometime between Galileo's death and 1667, the members of Florentine Accademia del Cimento repeated the experiment over a distance of about a mile and got the same unconvincing results. We now know that the speed of light is too fast to be measured by such a method (with human-opener shutter on Earth).
Galileo put forward the basic principle of relativity, that the laws of physics are the same in any system that moves at a constant velocity in a straight line, regardless of speed or direction. Therefore, there is no absolute movement or absolute rest. This principle provides the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is central to Einstein's special theory of relativity.
Falling
A biography by Galileo's disciple Vincenzo Viviani states that Galileo has dropped the ball from the same material, but different masses, of the Leaning Tower of Pisa to show that the time of their descent does not depend on their mass. This is contrary to what Aristotle taught: that heavy objects fall faster than light objects, in direct proportion to weight. Although this story has been retold on popular accounts, there is no record from Galileo himself about such an experiment, and it is generally accepted by historians that this is a thought experiment that did not actually happen. The exception is Drake, who argues that the experiment happened, more or less as Viviani described it. The experiments described are actually performed by Simon Stevin (commonly known as Stevinus) and Jan Cornets de Groot, although the actual building used was a church tower in Delft in 1586. However, most of his experiments with fallen bodies were performed using a skewed plane in which time and air resistance is greatly reduced.
In its 1638 Discorsi, Galileo's character Salviati, widely regarded as Galileo's spokesman, stated that all unequal weights would fall at the same limited speed in a vacuum. But this has previously been proposed by Lucretius and Simon Stevin. Salviati of Cristiano Banti also stated that this can be experimentally demonstrated by the comparison of pendulum motions in the air with lead and cork clumps having different but similar weight.
Galileo proposed that fallen bodies would fall with uniform acceleration, as long as the resilience of the media they passed could be ignored, or in cases of delimiters falling through a vacuum. He also gets the correct kinematics law for the distance traveled during the uniform acceleration starting from the break - that is, it is proportional to the square of the elapsed time (Ã, d Ã,? Ã, 2 Ã,). Before Galileo, Nicole Oresme, in the 14th century, had taken the time-squared law for uniformly accelerated change, and Domingo de Soto had suggested in the sixteenth century that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium would be accelerated uniformly. Galileo declared the time-squared law to use geometric constructions and mathematical exact words, following the standard of the day. (It remains for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms).
He also concluded that objects retained their speed without any barriers to their movements, thus contradicting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that the body can only remain in what is called "violence", "not fair ", or" forced "to move as long as the agent of change (" mover ") continues to act on it. Philosophical ideas related to inertia have been proposed by John Philoponus and Jean Buridan. Galileo states: "Imagine every particle projected along the horizontal plane without friction, then we know, from what has been described more fully on the previous page, that this particle will move along this same plane with a uniform and perpetual motion, which provided the plane has no limit "This is incorporated into Newton's laws of motion (first law).
Math
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics is innovative, his mathematical methods are the standard ones today, including dozens of examples from the inverse square root method of proportion derived from Fibonacci and Archimedes. Analysis and evidence rely heavily on the theory of Eudoxian proportions, as listed in the fifth book of the Euclid Elements. This theory was available only a century earlier, thanks to an accurate translation by Tartaglia and others; but at the end of Galileo's life, he was replaced by Descartes' algebraic method.
Galileo's problems were largely forgotten after Galileo's death, and the controversy subsided. The prohibition of the Inquisition to reprint Galileo's works was revoked in 1718 when permission was granted to publish his edition of his work (excluding the condemned [Dialog] in Florence.In 1741, Pope Benedict XIV authorized the publication of the full edition of Galileo's scientific work which included a slightly censored version of Dialogue In 1758, a general ban on heliocentrism advocacy works was removed from the Index of prohibited books, despite a special ban on the uncensored version of the Dialogue and Copernicus's De Revolutionibus persists.all traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally derived from the Index.
Interest in Galileo's affairs was revived in the early nineteenth century, when Protestant polemicists used it (and other events such as the Spanish Inquisition and the myth of a flat Earth) to attack Roman Catholics. His interests have changed and shrunk ever since. In 1939, Pope Pius XII, in his first speech at the Pontifical Academy, within a few months after his election to the papacy, described Galileo as one of the "most audacious heroes of research... not afraid of the stumbling block, and risk of travel, will be monuments ". His 40-year-old close adviser, Professor Robert Leiber, wrote: "Pius XII is very careful not to close any door (to science) before his time, he is energetic in this and regrets it in the case of Galileo."
On February 15, 1990, in a speech delivered at Sapienza University of Rome, Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) quotes some of the current views on Galileo's affairs as forming what he calls "the symptomatic case that allows us to see how deeply we are. behind the modern age, science and technology are running today ". Some of the views he quotes are the opinions of the philosopher Paul Feyerabend, whom he quotes as "the Church at Galileo's time was closer to reason than Galileo himself, and he considered the ethical and social consequences of Galileo, teaching as well.His verdict against Galileo was rational and fair and revised this verdict can be justified only on the basis of what is politically profitable. "The cardinal does not clearly indicate whether he agrees or disagrees with Feyerabend's statement. He, however, said, "It is foolish to build an impulsive apology on the basis of such a view."
On October 31, 1992, Pope John Paul II expressed regret over how Galileo's affairs were dealt with, and issued a declaration recognizing the mistakes made by the Catholic Church court judging the scientific position of Galileo Galilei, as a result of a study conducted by the Pontifical Council for Culture. In March 2008, the head of the Pontifical Academy, Nicola Cabibbo, announced plans to honor Galileo by erecting a statue of himself inside the walls of the Vatican. In December of the same year, during the event to mark the 400th anniversary of Galileo's earliest telescopic observations, Pope Benedict XVI praised his contribution to astronomy. A month later, however, the head of the Pontifical Council for Culture, Gianfranco Ravasi, revealed that plans to erect Galileo's statue in the Vatican's grounds have been suspended.
Impact on modern science
According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo may bear more responsibility for the birth of modern science than anyone else, and Albert Einstein called him father of modern science.
The discovery and investigation of Galileo's astronomy into the Copernican theory has produced an eternal legacy that includes the categorization of the four great moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons. Other scientific efforts and principles named Galileo include the Galileo spacecraft, the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter, the proposed Galileo global satellite navigation system, the transformation between the inertial system in classical mechanics symbolizing the Galilean and Gal transformations (units) sometimes known as Galileo, which is a non-SI accelerated unit.
Partly because 2009 is the fourth century of the first astronomical observations Galileo recorded with telescopes, the UN scheduled it to become the International Year of Astronomy. A global scheme organized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), also supported by UNESCO - the UN agency responsible for educational, scientific and cultural issues. The International Year of Astronomy 2009 is intended to be a global celebration of astronomy and its contribution to society and culture, stimulating world interest not only in astronomy but science in general, with a special slant towards young people.
Asteroid 697 Galilee was named in his honor.
In artistic and popular media
Galileo is mentioned several times in the "opera" section of the Queen's song, "Bohemian Rhapsody". She stands out in the song "Galileo" performed by Indigo Girls and Amy Grant Galileo on her album Heart in Motion .
20th century dramas have been written in Galileo's life, including Galileo's Life (1943) by German playmaker Bertolt Brecht, with film adaptations (1975), and Lamp At Midnight (1947) ) by Barrie Stavis, as well as the 2008 drama "Galileo Galilei".
Kim Stanley Robinson wrote a science fiction novel titled Galileo Dream (2009), in which Galileo was brought into the future to help solve the scientific philosophy crisis; the story moves back and forth between Galileo's own time and a distant hypothetical future and contains a wealth of biographical information.
Galileo Galilei was recently selected as the primary motive for high value coin collectors: International Astronomy Coins of EUR25, commemorated in 2009. This coin also commemorates 400 years of invention of the Galileo telescope. The front shows some portraits and telescopes. The background shows one of the first images of the lunar surface. In silver ring, another telescope is described: Isaac Newton Telescope, observatory in KremsmÃÆ'¼nster Abbey, modern telescope, radio telescope, and space telescope. In 2009, Galileoscope was also released. This is a 2-inch (51 mm) telescope that is mass-produced and cheap with relatively high quality.
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Galileo's early work on scientific instruments including channel 1586 titled The Little Balance La Billancetta depicting an accurate balance for weighing objects in the air or water and manual 1606 printed > Le Operazioni del Compasso Geometrico et Militare on the operation of geometric and military compass.
His first work in dynamics, the science of motion and mechanics is circa 1590 Pisan De Motu (On Motion) and circa 1600 Alloys Le Meccaniche (Mechanics). The first is based on Aristotelian-Archimedean fluid dynamics and states that spee
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