Emotion

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Emotions are any conscious experiences that are characterized by intense mental activity and a certain level of pleasure or displeasure. Scientific discourse has shifted to other meanings and there is no consensus on definition. Emotions are often associated with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and motivation. In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those who act primarily on the emotions they feel may seem as if they are not thinking, but mental processes are still important, especially in the interpretation of events. For example, the embodiment of our belief that we are in dangerous situations and our body's nervous system passions (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle tension) are an integral part of our fear experience. Other theories, however, claim that emotions separate from and can precede cognition.

Emotions are complicated. According to some theories, they are states of feelings that produce physical and psychological changes that affect our behavior. Emotional physiology is closely related to the passions of the nervous system with the various conditions and forces of related stimuli, it seems, to certain emotions. Emotions are also associated with behavioral trends. Extroverts are more likely to be social and express their emotions, while introverts are more likely to be socially withdrawn and hide their emotions. Emotions are often the driving force behind motivation, positive or negative. According to other theories, emotions are not a causal force but only component syndromes, which may include motivation, feelings, behavior, and physiological changes, but none of these components are emotions. Emotion is also not an entity that causes these components.

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience, cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes, and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics sought to identify emotions with one component: William James with subjective experience, behaviorist with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologist with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotions are said to consist of all components. Different emotional components are categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline. In psychology and philosophy, emotions typically include subjective and subconscious experiences that are characterized primarily by psychophysiological expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. Similar multicomponent emotional features are found in sociology. For example, Peggy Thoits describes emotions as involving physiological components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.), expressive body actions, and situational and context assessments.

Research on emotions has increased significantly over the past two decades with many contributing fields including psychology, neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology, and computer science. Many theories that attempt to explain the origin, neurobiology, experience, and emotional function only foster more intense research on this topic. The current field of research in the concept of emotion includes the development of stimulating and emotional material. In addition, PET scans and fMRI scans help learn affective processes in the brain.

"Emotions can be defined as positive or negative experiences associated with certain physiological activity patterns." Emotions produce different physiological, behavioral, and cognitive changes. The original role of emotions is to motivate adaptive behavior that in the past will contribute to human survival. Emotions are a response to significant internal and external events.

Video Emotion

Etymology, definitions, history and differentiation

The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it is adapted from the French word Æ' mouvoir, meaning "to awaken". The term emotion is introduced into academic discussion as a term that includes everything for lust, sentiment and affection. The word emotion was created in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown and circa 1830s that the modern concept of emotion first appeared. "No one feels emotion before about 1830. Instead they feel other things -" passion "," mental accident "," moral sentiment "- and explain it very differently from how we understand emotions today.

According to one dictionary, the earliest precursors of the word probably derive from the origin of the language. The word modern emotion is heterogeneous. In some words, emotion is an intense feeling directed at a person or something. On the other hand, emotions can be used to refer to a mild state (such as in annoyance or content) and to state that it is not directed at anything (such as anxiety and depression). One line of research thus sees the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language and this use is somewhat different from that in the academic discourse. Other research lines ask about languages ​​other than English, and one interesting finding is that many languages ​​have similar terms but are not identical. In anthropology, the inability to express or feel emotion is sometimes referred to as alexithymia.

Emotions have been described by some theorists as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events that have special significance for the organism. The emotions are short in duration and consist of a set of coordinated responses, which may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms. Psychotherapist Michael C. Graham describes all the emotions that exist in the intensity of the continuum. So fear can range from mild concerns to terror or shyness can range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame. Emotions have also been described as biologically administered and are the result of evolution because they provide a good solution to the ancient and recurrent problems facing our ancestors. Mood is a feeling that tends to be less powerful than emotions and often lacks contextual stimuli.

Emotions can be distinguished from a number of similar constructions in affective neuroscience:

• The feeling is best understood as a subjective, personal emotional representation for the individual who experiences it.
• Mood is a diffuse affective state that generally lasts for a longer period of time than emotions and is usually also less intense than emotion.
• Influence is a term that includes, is used to describe emotion, feel, and mood topics together, although it is usually used interchangeably with emotions.

In addition, relationships exist between emotions, such as having a positive or negative influence, with existing opponents. These concepts are explained in contrast and categorization of emotions. Graham distinguishes emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues that all functional emotions have benefits.

Maps Emotion

Components

In the components of the model processing component of the emotions, five important elements of emotion are said to exist. From the perspective of component processing, emotional experiences are said to require that all these processes become coordinated and synchronized for a short time, driven by the assessment process. Although the inclusion of cognitive assessment as one of the elements is somewhat controversial, as some theorists make the assumption that emotion and cognition are separate but interacting systems, the component processing model provides sequences of events that effectively describe the coordination involved during emotional episodes..

• Cognitive assessment: provides evaluation of events and objects.
• Body symptoms: the physiological component of emotional experience.
• Trend action: Motivational component for preparation and direction of motor response.
Expression
• Expression: faces and vowels almost always accompany emotional states to communicate reaction and action intentions.
• Feelings: subjective experience of an emotional state after it occurs.

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Classification

Differences can be made between emotional episodes and emotional dispositions. Emotional disposition is also proportional to the character, in which a person can be said to generally tend to experience certain emotions. For example, an irritable person generally tends to feel easier or irritating faster than others. Finally, some theorists place emotions in the more general category of "affective states" in which affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states (eg, hunger or curiosity), mood, disposition and properties.

Emotional classification has mainly been investigated from two fundamental viewpoints. The first point of view is that emotions are discrete and fundamentally different constructs while a second point of view asserts that emotions can be characterized dimensionally in grouping.

Emotional base

For more than 40 years, Paul Ekman has supported the view that emotions are discrete, measurable, and physiologically different. Ekman's most influential work revolves around the discovery that certain emotions appear to be universally acknowledged, even in cultures that are preliterate and can not study associations for facial expression through the media. Another classical study found that when participants shrink their facial muscles into different facial expressions (eg, disgust), they report subjective and physiological experiences that match different facial expressions. Her research results make her classify six emotions as the basis: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise.

Robert Plutchik agrees with Ekman's biologically driven perspective, but develops an "emotional wheel", showing eight main emotions grouped by positive or negative: like or sad; anger versus fear; trust versus disgust; and surprise versus anticipation. Some basic emotions can be modified to form complex emotions. Complex emotions can arise from cultural or association conditioning combined with basic emotions. Alternatively, similar to the way primary colors combine, the main emotions can blend to form a full spectrum of human emotional experience. For example, anger and interpersonal contempt can unite to form an insult. Relationships exist between the basic emotions, producing a positive or negative effect.

Multi-dimensional analysis

Through the use of multidimensional scales, psychologists can map out similar emotional experiences, allowing visual representation of "emotional distance" between experiences. Further steps can be taken by looking at the map dimension of the emotional experience. Emotional experience is divided into two dimensions known as valence (how negative or positive the experience is felt) and passion (how energized or inhibited perceived experience). These two dimensions can be illustrated on the 2D coordinate map. This two-dimensional map theorizes to capture an important component of the emotion called the core effect. Influence of the core is not the only component of emotion, but it gives emotion hedonic energy and taste.

The core-influenced idea is just one component of emotion that leads to a theory called "psychological construction." According to this theory, the emotional episode consists of a set of components, each of which is a continuous process and nothing is needed or enough for the emotion to be used. The set of components is not fixed either by the history of human evolution or by social norms and roles. Instead, emotional episodes are collected at the time of the event to adjust to their specific circumstances. One implication is that all cases, for example, fear are not identical but have family resemblance to one another.

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Theory

Ancient Greek, Ancient Chinese, Islamic Golden Age, and the Middle Ages Ancient Greece, Ancient China, span>

Theories about emotion stretch back at least as far as the ancient Greek and Ancient Chinese stoics. In China, excessive emotion is believed to cause damage to qi , which, in turn, destroys vital organs. Four popular humor theories by Hippocrates contribute to the study of emotions in the same way as do for drugs.

During the Golden Age of Islam, the Persian polymath Avicenna theorized about the influence of emotions on health and behavior, indicating the need to manage emotions. Western philosophy views emotions in various ways. In stoic theories, it is seen as an obstacle to reason and thus becomes a barrier to virtue. Aristotle believed that emotion was an essential component of virtue. In Aristotle's view all emotions (called passions) are related to taste or capacity. During the Middle Ages, Aristotle's views were adopted and further developed by scholasticism and Thomas Aquinas in particular. There is also a theory of emotion in the works of philosophers such as Renà © ¨ Descartes, NiccolÃÆ' Machiavelli, Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, and David Hume. In the 19th century emotions were considered to be adaptive and studied more often from an empirical psychiatric perspective.

The theory of evolution

the 19th century

The perspective on the emotions of the theory of evolution began in the mid-19th century with the book of Charles Darwin in 1872 Emotional Expression in Humans and Animals. Darwin argues that emotions actually serve the purpose for humans, in communication and also in helping their survival. Darwin, therefore, argues that emotions evolve through natural selection and therefore have a universal cross-cultural counterpart. Darwin also detailed the virtues of experiencing the emotions and parallel experiences that occur in animals. It leads the way for animal research on emotions and the ultimate determination of the basics of emotional nerves.

Contemporary

More contemporary views across the spectrum of evolutionary psychology suggest that both basic emotions and social emotions evolve to motivate adaptive (social) behaviors in ancestral environments. Current research shows that emotion is an important part of any human decision-making and planning, and the well-known distinctions made between reason and emotion are not as clear as they seem. Paul D. MacLean claims that emotions compete with more instinctive responses, on the one hand, and more abstract reasoning, on the other. The potential increase in neuroimaging also allows an investigation of ancient brain evolution. Important neurological progress comes from this perspective in the 1990s by Joseph E. LeDoux and AntÃÆ'³nio DamÃÆ'¡sio.

Research on social emotions also focuses on the physical appearance of emotions including animal and human body language (see affect view). For example, revenge seems to work against the individual but can build a person's reputation as a dreaded person. Shame and pride can motivate behaviors that help a person to maintain his standing in a community, and self-esteem is a person's estimate of one's status.

Somatic theory

Somatic emotional theories claim that the body's response, rather than cognitive interpretation, is essential to emotion. The first modern version of such a theory came from William James in the 1880s. This theory was less favored in the 20th century, but has regained popularity recently because most theorists such as John Cacioppo, AntÃÆ'³nio DamÃÆ'¡sio, Joseph E. LeDoux and Robert Zajonc were able to appeal to neurological evidence. James-Lange Theory James Lange's

In his 1884 article William James argues that feelings and emotions are secondary for physiological phenomena. In his theory, James proposes that the perception of what he calls "interesting facts" directly leads to a physiological response, known as "emotion." To account for the different types of emotional experiences, James proposes that stimuli trigger activity in the autonomic nervous system, which in turn results in emotional experiences in the brain. Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at about the same time, and therefore this theory is known as the James-Lange theory. As James wrote, "the perception of body change, when it happens, is emotion." James further claimed that "we feel sad because we are crying, angry because we are attacking, fearful because we are trembling, and whether we are weeping, attacking, or trembling because we are sorry, angry, or afraid, as it may be.

Examples of this theory in action are as follows: Emotional stimulation (snakes) triggers physiological response patterns (increased heart rate, faster breathing, etc.), which are interpreted as specific emotions (fear). This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the state of the body induce the desired emotional state. Some people may believe that emotions create special emotional actions, for example, "I am crying because I am sad," or "I run away because I am scared." The problem with James-Lange's theory is that causation (the state of the body that causes emotion and becomes a priori ), is not the body's influence on emotional experience (which is debatable and still quite common today). in biofeedback studies and embodiment theory).

Though largely abandoned in its original form, Tim Dalgleish argues that most contemporary neuroscientists have embraced the components of James-Lange's emotional theory.

James-Lange's theory remains influential. Its main contribution is the emphasis it gives on emotional manifestations, especially the argument that changes in the emotional connectivity of the body can alter the intensity of those who are experienced. Most contemporary neurologists will support the modified view of James-Lange in which body feedback modulates the emotional experience. "(Page 583)

Cannon-Bard Theory

Walter Bradford Cannon agrees that physiological responses play an important role in emotion, but do not believe that the physiological responses alone can account for subjective emotional experiences. He argues that physiological responses are too slow and often invisible and this can not explain the relatively quick and intense subjective consciousness of emotions. He also believes that temporal emotional riches, variations, and experiences can not be derived from physiological reactions, reflecting an unspecified response of combat or flight. Examples of this theory in action are as follows: Events that evoke emotions (snakes) trigger simultaneously both the physiological response and the conscious experience of an emotion.

Phillip Bard contributed to the theory with his work on animals. Bard found that sensory, motor, and physiological information should all pass through the diencephalon (especially the thalamus), before being further processed. Therefore, Cannon also believes that it is not anatomically possible for sensory events to trigger physiological responses before triggering conscious awareness and emotional stimuli should trigger emotional aspects both physiologically and simultaneously.

Two-factor theory

Stanley Schachter formulated his theory of the previous work of a Spanish physician, Gregorio MaraÃÆ'Â ± ÃÆ'³n, who injects patients with epinephrine and then asks them how they feel. Interestingly, MaraÃÆ'Â Â ± ÃÆ'³n found that most patients felt something but in the absence of an emotionally stimulating stimulus, patients could not interpret their physiological stimuli as experienced emotions. Schachter agrees that physiological reactions play a major role in emotion. He suggested that physiological reactions contribute to emotional experiences by facilitating focused cognitive assessment of a physiologically generating event and that this assessment is what defines subjective emotional experiences. Such emotions result from two stages of the process: general physiological arousal, and emotional experience. For example, physiological arousal, palpitations, in response to stimulating stimuli, seeing bears in the kitchen. The brain then quickly scans the area, to explain the boom, and bear notices. As a result, the brain interprets the beating heart as a result of fear of bears. With his student, Jerome Singer, Schachter points out that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state as epinephrine injections. The subject is observed to express anger or entertainment depending on whether other people in the situation (a confederate) display the emotion. Therefore, the combination of a cognitive and participatory assessment of adrenaline or placebo together determines the response. This experiment has been criticized in Jesse Prinz (2004) Gut Reactions .

Cognitive theory

With the two-factor theory now combining cognition, some theories begin to argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgment, evaluation, or mind is entirely necessary for emotions to occur. One of the main proponents of this view is Richard Lazarus who argues that emotions must have cognitive introspection. The cognitive activity involved in the interpretation of the emotional context may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of a conceptual process.

Lazarus's theory was very influential; emotion is a disorder that occurs in the following order:

1. Cognitive judgment - Individuals assess cognitive events, which are emotional cues.
2. Physiological changes - Cognitive reactions initiate biological changes such as increased heart rate or pituitary adrenal responses.
3. Action - Individuals feel emotion and choose how to react.

For example: Jenny saw a snake.

1. Jenny cognitively assesses the snake in front of her. Cognition allows him to understand it as a danger.
2. Her brain activates the adrenal glands that pump adrenaline through her bloodstream to increase heart rate.
3. Jenny screams and runs away.

Lazarus emphasizes that the quality and intensity of emotions are controlled through cognitive processes. These processes underscore the coping strategies that shape emotional reactions by changing the relationships between people and the environment.

George Mandler provides theoretical and empirical discussion of the broad emotions influenced by cognition, awareness, and autonomic nervous systems in two books (Thoughts and Emotions, 1975, and Mind and Body: Psychology of Emotions and Stress, 1984)

There are several theories about emotions that suggest that cognitive activity in the form of judgment, evaluation, or thought is necessary for emotions to occur. A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert C. Solomon (eg, The Passions, Emotion and Meaning of Life , 1993). Solomon claims that emotion is judgment. He has put forward a more nuanced view that responds to what he calls 'standard objections' to cognitivism, the idea that judgment that something frightening can happen with or without emotion, so that judgment can not be identified with emotion. The theory proposed by Nico Frijda in which judgment leads to the tendency of action is another example.

It has also been argued that emotions (affecting heuristics, feelings, and feeling reactions) are often used as shortcuts to process information and influence behavior. Infusion Influencing Model (AIM) is a theoretical model developed by Joseph Forgas in the early 1990s that tries to explain how emotions and moods interact with a person's ability to process information.

Perceptive Theory

Theories that deal with perceptions either use one or several perceptions to find emotions (Goldie, 2007). A recent hybrid of somatic and cognitive emotional theories is a perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in stating that the body's response is the center of emotion, but emphasizes the emotional meaning or the idea that emotion is about something, as recognized by cognitive theories. The new claim of this theory is that conceptual-based cognition is not necessary for such a meaning. Instead, the body transforms itself into a meaningful emotional content because it is triggered causally by a particular situation. In this case, emotions are considered analogous to faculty such as sight or touch, which provide information about the relationship between the subject and the world in various ways. This sophisticated defense of view is found in the book of philosopher Jesse Prinz Gut Reactions , and the book of psychologist James Laird Feeling .

Affective event theory

Affective event theory is a communication-based theory developed by Howard M. Weiss and Russell Cropanzano (1996), who look at the causes, structures, and consequences of emotional experiences (especially in the work context). This theory shows that emotions are influenced and caused by events which in turn influence attitudes and behavior. This theoretical framework also emphasizes the time in which people experience what they call an emotional episode - "a series of emotional states are extended over time and organized around the underlying theme." This theory has been used by many researchers to better understand the emotions of the communicative lens, and further reviewed by Howard M. Weiss and Daniel J. Beal in their article, "Reflection on the Theory of Affective Events", published in the Research on Emotions in the Organization in 2005.

Perspective lies in emotion

The emotional perspective, developed by Paul E. Griffiths and Andrea Scarantino, emphasizes the importance of external factors in the development and communication of emotions, utilizing situational approaches in psychology. This theory is very different from cognitive and neo-Jamesian theories about emotion, both see emotions as pure internal processes, with the environment acting as a stimulus to emotions. Instead, the emotional situation perspective views emotions as the product of an organism that investigates its environment, and observes the response of other organisms. Emotions stimulate the evolution of social relationships, acting as signals to mediate the behavior of other organisms. In some contexts, emotional expression (either voluntary or unconscious) can be seen as a strategic step in transactions between different organisms. Perspectives that lie in emotion state that conceptual thinking is not an inherent part of emotion, because emotion is a form of action oriented towards skillful engagement with the world. Griffiths and Scarantino suggest that this perspective on emotions can help in understanding the phobias, as well as the emotions of babies and animals.

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Genetics

Emotions can motivate social interactions and relationships and are therefore directly related to basic physiology, especially with stress systems. This is important because emotions are associated with an anti-stress complex, with an oxytocin bonding system, which plays a major role in bonding. Emotional phenotype temperaments affect social connectivity and fitness in complex social systems (Kurt Kortschal 2013). These characteristics are shared with other species and taxa and because of the effects of genes and their ongoing transmission. The information encoded in the DNA sequence provides a blueprint for assembling the proteins that make up our cells. Zygotes require genetic information from their parental stem cells, and in each speciation event, the inherited trait that has enabled its ancestor to survive and multiply successfully continues along with new traits that can potentially be beneficial to his offspring.

In the five million years since the lineage that leads to modern humans and chimpanzees is split, only about 1.2% of their modified genetic material. This shows that all that separates us from chimpanzees should be encoded in very small amounts of DNA, including our behavior. Students who study animal behavior simply identify examples of intraspecific phenotypes of gene-dependent behavior. In voles (Microtus spp.) Small genetic differences have been identified in vasopressin receptor genes that correspond to major species differences in social organization and mating systems (Hammock & Young 2005). Another potential example of behavioral differences is the FOCP2 gene, which is involved in speech handling of neural and language circuits (Vargha-Khadem et al., 2005). Its present form in humans differs from chimpanzees by only a few mutations and has existed for about 200,000 years, coinciding with the beginnings of modern humans (Enard et al., 2002). Speech, language, and social organization are part of the basic emotions.

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Neurocircuitry

Based on the findings made through the neural mapping of the limbic system, the neurobiological explanation of human emotions is that emotions are a pleasant or unpleasant mental state arranged in the limbic system of the mammalian brain. When distinguished from reactive reactive responses, emotions then become mammals of elaboration of common vertebral arousal patterns, where neurochemistry (eg, dopamine, noradrenaline, and serotonin) increases or decreases the level of brain activity, as seen in the body. movement, gestures and posture. Emotions can be mediated by pheromones (see fear).

For example, emotion of love is proposed to be the expression of the paleocircuits of the mammalian brain (in particular, the module of the cingulate gyrus) that facilitates the care, feeding, and care of offspring. Paleocircuits are neural platforms for configurable body expressions before the advent of cortical circuits to speak. They consist of pre-configured pathways or neural network cells in the forebrain, brain stem and spinal cord.

Reptile motor centers react to the senses of sight, sound, touch, chemistry, gravity, and movement with pre-set body movement and programmed posture. With the arrival of active mammals at night, olfaction replaces vision as a dominant meaning, and different ways of responding emerge from the sense of smell, which is proposed to develop into emotional mammals and emotional memory. Mammalian brains are invested heavily in olfactory to succeed at night when sleeping reptiles - one explanation of why the olfactory lobes in the proportional mammalian brain are greater than in reptiles. This odor path gradually forms a neural blueprint for what later became our limbic brain.

Emotions are thought to be related to a particular activity in the area of ​​the brain that directs our attention, motivates our behavior, and determines the significance of what is happening around us. The pioneering work by Broca (1878), Papez (1937), and MacLean (1952) suggest that emotions are related to a group of structures at the center of the brain called the limbic system, which include the hypothalamus, cingulate cortex, hippocampi, and other structures. More recent research has shown that some limbic structures are not directly related to emotions like the others while some non-limbic structures have been found to have greater emotional relevance.

In 2011, LÃÆ'¶vheim proposed a direct link between specific combinations of substance levels of dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin signals, and eight basic emotions. A model is presented in which the signal substance forms the axis of the coordinate system, and eight basic emotions according to Silvan Tomkins are placed in eight corners. The anger, by model, is produced by a combination of low serotonin, high dopamine and high noradrenaline.

Prefrontal cortex

There is ample evidence that the left prefrontal cortex is activated by stimuli that lead to a positive approach. If exciting stimuli can selectively activate the brain region, then logically the reverse must be maintained, that selective activation of the brain region should cause the stimulus to be considered more positive. This is shown for visual stimuli that are quite interesting and replicated and expanded to include negative stimuli.

Two neurobiological models of emotion in the prefrontal cortex make opposing predictions. The Valensi model predicts that anger, negative emotions, will activate the right prefrontal cortex. The Direction model predicts that anger, emotional approach, will activate the left prefrontal cortex. The second model is supported.

It still opens the question of whether the opposite of the approach in the prefrontal cortex is better described as moving away (Direction Model), as immobile but with strength and endurance (Movement Model), or as an immobile action tendency model. Support for the Action Tendency Model (passive associated with right prefrontal activity) comes from research on shyness and research on behavioral inhibition. Studies that tested the competitive hypotheses generated by the four models also support the Tendency Action Model.

Homeostatik/emosi primordial

Another neurological approach proposed by Bud Craig in 2003 distinguishes two classes of emotion: "classic" emotions such as love, anger and fear aroused by environmental stimuli, and "homeostatic emotions" - feelings that demand attention generated by the state of the body, such as pain, hunger and fatigue, which motivate behavior (withdrawal, feeding or rest in these examples) aimed at keeping the body's internal environment in an ideal state.

Derek Denton calls the latter "primordial emotions" and defines them as "the subjective element of instinct, which is a genetically programmed pattern of behavior that constitutes homeostasis, including thirst, starvation, starvation for food, pain and hunger for certain minerals. etc.. There are two constituents of primordial emotions - a specific sensation that when heavy may be arrogant, and intent that compels to satisfaction by perfect action. "

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Discipline Approach

Many different disciplines have produced work on emotions. Human science studies the role of emotion in mental processes, disorders, and nervous mechanisms. In psychiatry, emotions are examined as part of a disciplined study and treatment of mental disorders in humans. Nursing studies emotions as part of its approach to providing holistic health care to humans. Psychology examines emotions from a scientific perspective by treating them as a mental and behavioral process and they explore the underlying physiological and neurological processes. In the sub-fields of neuroscience such as social neuroscience and affective neuroscience, scientists study the neural mechanisms of emotion by combining neuroscience with psychological studies of personality, emotions, and mood. In linguistics, the expression of emotion can turn into the meaning of sound. In education, the role of emotion in relation to learning is examined.

The social sciences often examine emotions for the role it plays in human culture and social interaction. In sociology, emotions are examined for the role they play in human society, social patterns and interactions, and culture. In anthropology, the study of humanity, scholars use ethnography to conduct contextual and cross-cultural analyzes of various human activities. Several anthropological studies examined the role of emotion in human activity. In the field of communication science, critical organizational experts have examined the role of emotions in organizations, from the perspective of managers, employees, and even customers. Focus on emotions within the organization can be credited to the emotional work concept of Arlie Russell Hochschild. The University of Queensland hosts EmoNet, an e-mail distribution list representing a network of academics that facilitates scientific discussions on all matters relating to emotional studies in organizational settings. The list was established in January 1997 and has more than 700 members from all over the world.

In economics, the social sciences studying the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services, emotions are analyzed in several sub-fields of microeconomics, to assess the role of emotions in purchasing decisions and risk perceptions. In criminology, the social science approach to studying crime, scholars often use behavioral science, sociology, and psychology; emotions are examined in criminology issues such as anomalies and studies of "toughness," aggressive behavior, and hooliganism. Under the law, underlying civil, political, economic and community adherence, evidence of people's emotions is often filed in the lawsuit of indemnity lawsuits and in criminal prosecution of alleged offenders (as evidence of the circumstances of the accused during the hearing, sentencing, and hearing hearings conditional). In political science, emotions are examined in a number of sub-fields, such as voter decision analysis.

In philosophy, emotions are studied in sub-fields such as ethics, art philosophy (eg, sensory-emotional values, and things of taste and sentimentality), and musical philosophy (see also Music and emotions). In history, scholars check documents and other sources for interpreting and analyzing past activities; the speculation about the emotional state of the writers of historical documents is one of the means of interpretation. In literature and filmmaking, emotional expression is the cornerstone of genres such as drama, melodrama, and romance. In communication studies, scholars study the role that emotions play in spreading ideas and messages. Emotions are also studied in non-human animals in ethology, a zoological branch that focuses on the scientific study of animal behavior. Ethology is a combination of laboratory and science, with strong ties to ecology and evolution. Etologists often study one type of behavior (eg, aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

History

Emotional history has become an increasingly popular topic recently, with some experts arguing that it is an important category of analysis, unlike class, race, or gender. Historians, like other social scientists, assume that their emotions, feelings, and expressions are organized in different ways by different cultures and different historical times, and the historical flows of constructivist history even that some sentiments and meta-emotions, such as Schadenfreude, are studied and not just governed by the culture. Historians track emotions and analyze changing norms and rules of feeling, while examining emotional regimes, codes and lexicons from a social, cultural, or political perspective. Others focus on the history of medicine, science, or psychology. What can and may be perceived (and shown) in certain situations, of a particular person or thing, depends on social norms and rules; so historically variable and open to change. Several research centers have opened in recent years in Germany, England, Spain, Sweden, and Australia.

Furthermore, research in the history of trauma suggests that some traumatic emotions may be transmitted from parents to descendants to second and third generation, presented as examples of transgenerational trauma.

Sociology

Common ways in which emotions are conceptualized in sociology are in terms of multidimensional characteristics including cultural or emotional labels (eg, anger, pride, fear, happiness), physiological changes (eg, increased sweating, change in pulse rate), expressive facial and body movements for example, smiling, frowning, showing off teeth), and situational cue assessment. One comprehensive theory of emotional passion in humans has been developed by Jonathan Turner (2007: 2009). The two key determinants for emotional passion in this theory are state expectations and sanctions. When people enter a situation or meet with certain expectations about how the encounter takes place, they will experience different emotions depending on the extent to which expectations for the true Self, others and situations are met or not met. People can also provide positive or negative sanctions directed at Self or others that also trigger different emotional experiences in individuals. Turner analyzes various emotional theories in various fields of research including sociology, psychology, evolutionary science, and neuroscience. Based on this analysis, he identified four emotions considered by all researchers founded on human neurology including asertive-anger, fear, hatred, gratification, and sadness. These four categories are called major emotions and there is some agreement among researchers that these key emotions are combined to produce a more complex and complex emotional experience. This more complex emotion is called elaboration first in Turner's theory and includes sentiments such as pride, victory, and admiration. Emotions can also be experienced at varying degrees of intensity so that anxiety is a low intensity variation of primary emotional fear while depression is a higher intensity variant.

Efforts are often made to regulate emotions in accordance with community conventions and situations based on the many demands and (sometimes opposed) expectations that come from various entities. Emotion of anger in many cultures is disliked by girls and women (an expression of anger is also not recommended in men because men are seen as a threat if they show anger, which causes people to avoid it or treat it as a danger - especially women), while fear is not recommended in boys -laki and man. Expectations inherent in social roles, such as "acting as human beings" and not as women, and the accompanying "emotional rules" contribute to differences in certain emotional expressions. Some cultures encourage or discourage happiness, sadness, or jealousy, and the free expression of disgusted emotion is considered socially unacceptable in most cultures. Some social institutions are seen based on certain emotions, such as love in the case of contemporary marriage institutions. In advertisements, such as health campaigns and political messages, emotional appeal is usually found. Recent examples include non-smoking health campaigns and political campaigns that emphasize the fear of terrorism.

The sociological concern for emotions has changed over time. ÃÆ' â € ° mile Durkheim (1915/1965) writes about the collective frothing or emotional energy experienced by members of totem rituals in Australian aboriginal societies. He explains how the increased emotional energy achieved during totem rituals transporting people above themselves gives them the feeling that they are in the presence of a higher power, strength, embedded in sacred objects that are worshiped. This feeling of exaltation, he argues, ultimately leads people to believe that there is a power that governs sacred objects.

In the 1990s, sociologists focused on different aspects of certain emotions and how these emotions were socially relevant. For Cooley (1992), pride and shame are the most important emotions that drive people to take various social actions. At each meeting, he proposes that we monitor ourselves through the "visible glass" given by the movements and reactions of others. Depending on these reactions, we also experience pride or shame and this results in a certain course of action. Retzinger (1991) conducted a study of married couples who experienced a cycle of anger and shame. Drawing primarily on the work of Goffman and Cooley, Scheff (1990) developed the micro sociological theory of social ties. The formation or disruption of social bonding depends on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

After this development, Randall Collins (2004) formulated the ritual theory of interaction by drawing on Durkheim's work on the totem rituals extended by Goffman (1964/2013; 1967) into daily focus meetings. Based on the ritual interaction theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interaction. Emotional energy is regarded as a confidence to take action and courage experienced by a person when they are charged from the collective froth produced during group meetings that reach high intensity levels.

There is a growing body of research that employs the sociology of emotions to understand students' learning experiences during classroom interactions with teachers and other students (eg Milne & Otieno, 2007; Olitsky, 2007; Tobin, et al., 2013; Zembylas, 2002). These studies suggest that subjects of learning such as science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional passion such as emotional climates.

Regardless of the ritual tradition of emotional sociological interaction, other approaches have been classified into one of the other 6 categories (Turner, 2009) including:

1. the theory of evolution/biology,
2. symbolic interactionist theory,
3. dramaturgy theory,
4. ritual theory,
5. power theory and status,
6. stratification theory, and
7. exchange theory.

This list provides an overview of the different traditions in the sociology of emotions that sometimes conceptualize emotions in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches are synthesized by Turner (2007) in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce a comprehensive sociological report that refers to the development of many of the above traditions.

Psychotherapy and Psychotherapy and settings

Emotional regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies that people use to influence their own emotional experiences. For example, a behavioral strategy in which a person avoids situations to avoid unwanted emotions (trying not to think about situations, doing disturbing activities, etc.). Depending on the school's general emphasis on emotional cognitive components, physical energy use, or on the symbolic movements and facial expressions of emotional components, different psychotherapeutic schools approach different emotional settings. Cognitive-oriented schools approach them through their cognitive components, such as rational emotional behavioral therapy. Yet others approach emotions through symbolic movements and facial expression components (as in contemporary Gestalt therapy).

Cross-cultural research

Research on emotions reveals a strong cross-cultural difference in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions tend to be culturally specific. In a strategic setting, cross-cultural research on emotions is needed to understand the psychological situation of a particular population or a particular actor. This implies the need to understand the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivations of target audiences located in different cultures, essentially founded on national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.

Computer science

In the 2000s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been devoted to developing devices that recognize the appearance of human influence and modeling emotions. In computer science, affective computing is a branch of the study and development of artificial intelligence relating to the design of systems and devices that can recognize, interpret, and process human emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field that includes computer science, psychology, and cognitive science. While the origin of the field can be traced back to the original philosophical question into emotion, the more modern branch of computer science originated with Rosalind Picard paper in 1995 on affective computing. Detecting emotional information starts with a passive sensor that captures data about the physical state or user behavior without interpreting the input. The data collected is analogous to the cues that humans use to feel emotion in others. Another area of ​​affective computing is the design of computing devices proposed to demonstrate the innate emotional ability or being able to simulate emotions convincingly. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns. Detection and processing of facial expressions or body movement is achieved through detectors and sensors. The F-M Facial Action Coding System 2.0 (F-M FACS 2.0) pioneer was created in 2017 by Dr. Freitas-MagalhÃÆ' Â £ es, and presents about 2,000 segments in 4K, using 3D technology and automatic and real-time recognition.

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Leading theorist

By the end of the nineteenth century, the most influential theorists were William James (1842-1910) and Carl Lange (1834-1900). James is an American psychologist and philosopher who writes about educational psychology, the psychology of religious experience/mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. Lange is a Danish doctor and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James-Lange theory, the hypothesis of the origin and the nature of emotion. This theory states that in humans, in response to world experience, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscle tension, increased heart rate, sweat, and dryness of the mouth. Emotions, then, are feelings that arise as a result of these physiological changes, rather than be the cause.

Silvan Tomkins (1911-1991) developed the theory of Affect and Script theory. The Influential Theory introduces basic emotional concepts, and is based on the idea that emotional dominance, which he calls the system affected, is the motivating force in human life.

Some of the most influential theories on the emotions of the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold (1903-2002), an American psychologist who developed the theory of emotional assessment; Richard Lazarus (1922-2002), an American psychologist specializing in emotions and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A. Simon (1916-2001), which incorporates emotions into decision-making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik (1928-2006), an American psychologist who developed the psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; Robert Zajonc (1923-2008) a Polish-American social psychologist specializing in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon (1942-2007), an American philosopher who contributed to theories of emotional philosophy with books such as Emotion: Classical and Contemporary Reads (Oxford, 2003); Peter Goldie (1946-2011), a British philosopher who specializes in ethics, aesthetics, emotions, moods and characters; Nico Frijda (1927-2015), a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote the tendency to take appropriate action in circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions (1986); Jaak Panksepp (1943-2017), an American psychologist, psychobiologist, neurologist, and pioneer in affective neuroscience.

Influential influential theorists include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists:

• Lisa Feldman Barrett - (born 1963) Social philosopher and psychologist specializing in human science and emotions.
• John Cacioppo - (born 1951) from the University of Chicago, founding father with Gary Berntson social neuroscience.
• Randall Collins - (born 1941) American sociologist from the University of Pennsylvania develops an interaction ritual theory that includes an emotional entrainment model.
• AntÃÆ'³nio DamÃÆ'¡sio (born 1944) - Portuguese neurosurgeon and neuroscientist working in the US.
Richard Davidson (born 1951) - American psychologist and neurologist; a pioneer in affective neuroscience.
• Paul Ekman (born 1934) - Psychologist who specializes in the study of emotions and his relationship with facial expressions.
• Barbara Fredrickson - Social psychologist who specializes in positive emotions and psychology.
• Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 1940) - an American sociologist whose primary contribution in the relationship between the subcutaneous emotional flow in social life and the larger trends released by modern capitalism in organizations.
Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949) - an American neurologist who studies the biological basics of memory and emotion, especially the mechanism of fear.
• George Mandler (born 1924) - American psychologist who writes influential books on cognition and emotion.

• Jesse Prinz - American philosopher who specializes in emotion, moral psychology, aesthetics and awareness.
James A. Russell (born 1947) - American psychologist who developed or co-developed the PAD theory of environmental impact, the circumplex model of influence, the theory of the prototype of the concept of emotion, the critique of the hypothesis of universal recognition of the emotions of the face. expression, the concept of core influence, the theory of the development of differentiation of the concept of emotion, and, more recently, the psychological constructs of emotional theory.
• Klaus Scherer (born 1943) - Swiss psychologist and director of the Swiss Center for Affordable Science in Geneva; he specializes in emotional psychology.
Ronald de Sousa (born 1940) - English-Canadian philosopher who specializes in the philosophy of emotion, philosophy of mind, and philosophy of biology. Jonathan H. Turner (born 1942) - American sociologist from the University of California, Riverside who is a general sociological theorist with special fields including emotional sociology, ethnic relations, social institutions, social stratification, and bio-sociology.
• Dominique MoÃÆ'¯si (born 1946) - Write a book titled The Geopolitics of Emotion that focuses on emotions associated with globalization.

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See also

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References

Source of the article : Wikipedia