Developmental psychology

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Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why humans change during their lives. Initially concerned with infants and children, this field has been expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and whole ages. Developmental psychologists aim to explain how thoughts, feelings and behaviors change throughout life. This field examines changes in three major dimensions: physical development, cognitive development, and socioemosional development. In these three dimensions there are various topics including motor skills, executive function, moral understanding, language acquisition, social change, personality, emotional development, self-concept and identity formation.

Developmental psychology examines the effects of nature and maintains the process of human development, and processes change in context and across time. Many researchers are interested in the interaction between personal characteristics, individual behavior and environmental factors, including the social context and the built environment. Ongoing debates include biological essence vs. neuroplasticity and developmental stages vs. dynamic systems of development.

Developmental psychology involves various fields, such as, educational psychology, child psychopathology, forensic developmental psychology, child development, cognitive psychology, ecological psychology, and cultural psychology. The influential developmental psychologists of the 20th century included Urie Bronfenbrenner, Erik Erikson, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Barbara Rogoff, Esther Thelen, and Lev Vygotsky.

Video Developmental psychology

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John B. Watson and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are usually cited as the basis for psychology of modern development. In the mid-18th century Jean Jacques Rousseau described three stages of development: infants (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence at Emile: Or, On Education . The idea of ​​Rousseau was taken strongly by the educators at the time.

It generally focuses on how and why certain modifications throughout the individual life cycle (cognitive, social, intellectual, personality) and human growth change over time. There are many theorists who have contributed greatly to this field of psychology. For example, Erik Erikson developed an eight-stage model of psychological development. He believed that humans grew gradually over their lifetimes and this would have an impact on their behavior (Ideas similar to Sigmund Freud)

At the end of the nineteenth century, psychologists familiar with Darwin's theory of evolution began searching for an evolutionary explanation of psychological development; What stands out here is the pioneering psychologist G. Stanley Hall, who seeks to relate the childhood age to the previous human age. James Mark Baldwin who wrote essays on topics including Imitation: Chapters in the History of Natural Consciousness and Mental Development in Children and Race: Methods and Processes . Baldwin is deeply involved in the theory of developmental psychology. Sigmund Freud, whose concept evolved, had a significant impact on public perception.

Maps Developmental psychology

Theory

Psychosexual development

Sigmund Freud believes that we all have a conscious, conscious, and unconscious level. In consciousness, we are conscious of our mental processes. The subconscious involves information which, though not in our minds, can be brought to consciousness. Finally, the unconscious includes mental processes that we are not aware of.

He believes there is tension between conscious and unconscious because consciousness tries to hold back what the subconscious does not realize. To explain this he develops three personality structures: id, ego, and superego. The id, the most primitive of the three, functions in accordance with the principle of pleasure: seeking pleasure and avoiding pain. The superego plays a critical and moral role; and the ego is an organized and realistic part that mediates between id and superego desires.

Based on this, he proposes five stages of universal development, each characterized by a sensitive zone which is the source of the child's psychosexual energy. The first is the oral stage , which occurs from birth to 12 months of age. During the oral stage, "libido is centered in the baby's mouth." The baby can suck. The second is the anal stage, from the age of one to three years. During the rectal stage, the child defecates from the anus and is often fascinated by their bowel movements. The third is the phallic stage , which occurs from three to five years (mostly personality forms of a person at this age). During the stage of the phallus, the child is aware of their sexual organs. The fourth is the latency stage, which occurs from the age of five to puberty. During the latency stage, the child's sexual interest is suppressed. Stage five is the genital stage , which goes from puberty to adulthood. During the genital stage, puberty begins to occur.

Stages of moral development

Piaget claims that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Extending Piaget's work, Lawrence Kohlberg determined that the moral development process is fundamentally related to justice, and it continues throughout the life of the individual.

He suggests three levels of moral reasoning; pre-conventional moral reasoning, conventional moral reasoning, and post-conventional moral reasoning. Pre-conventional moral thinking is characteristic of children and is characterized by reasoning based on rewards and punishments associated with different actions. Conventional moral reasoning occurs during childhood and early adolescence and is characterized by reasoning based on community rules and conventions. Finally, post-conventional moral reasoning is a stage in which individuals view the rules and conventions of society as relative and subjective, not as authoritative.

Kohlberg uses Heinz's Dilemma to apply to his stages of moral development. Heinz's dilemma involves Heinz's wife who is dying of cancer and Heinz has a dilemma to save his wife by stealing medicine. The pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality apply to the Heinz situation.

Psychosocial developmental stages

German-American psychologist Erik Erikson and his collaborator and his wife, Joan Erikson, conceptualize the eight phases of psychosocial development they are being considered as healthy people as they progress from infancy to adulthood. The first stage is called "Trust vs. Unbelief" occurs in infancy. The best virtue for the first stage is hope, inside the baby learning who to trust and have hope for a group of supportive people to be there for her. The second stage is "Autonomy vs. Humiliation and Doubtful" with the best will of virtue. This happens in childhood where children learn to become more independent by finding what they can afford where if the child is too controlled, they believe they feel unable to survive on their own, which can lead to low self-esteem and doubt. The third stage is "Initiative vs. Guilt". The basic virtues to be gained are the goals and take place at the age of play. This is the stage where the child will be curious and have lots of interactions with other children. They will ask many questions as their curiosity grows. If too much guilt is present, the child may have a slower and more difficult time to interact with other children. The fourth stage is "Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority". The basic virtue for this stage is the competence that occurs at school age. This stage is when the child will try to win the approval of others and adjust and understand the value of their achievement. The fifth stage is "Identity vs. Role Confusion". The basic virtues gained are the adherence that occurs in adolescence. This is where the child will begin to discover who he is as a person in society. What sex role he chose. The sixth stage is "Intimacy vs. Isolation", which occurs in young adults and the virtue gained is love. This is where people will start sharing their lives with others intimately and emotionally. By not doing it, it can lead to isolation. The seventh stage is "Generativity vs Stagnation". This happens in adulthood and the virtues gained will be of concern. We became stable and began to retaliate by raising families and becoming involved in the community. The eighth stage is "Ego Integrity vs. Despair". This occurs as long as maturity and wisdom are obtained. When a person gets older and they reflect and look back and see the success or failure of their lives. This is also the stage where a person can also have a closure and accept death without fear of anything.

Cognitive development theory

Jean Piaget, a Swiss theorist, argues that children learn by actively building knowledge through direct experience. He suggested that the role of adults in helping children learn is to provide the right materials that children can use to interact and use to build. He uses Socrates's questions to make children reflect on what they do, and he tries to get them to see the contradictions in their explanations.

Piaget believed that intellectual development took place through a series of stages, which he described in his theory of cognitive development. Each stage consists of steps that the child must master before moving on to the next step. He believes that these stages are not separate from one another, but that each stage builds on the previous one in a continuous learning process. He proposed four stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operations, and formal operations. Although he does not believe these stages occur at any age, many studies have determined when these cognitive abilities should occur.

Stages based on hierarchical complexity model

Michael Commons enhances and simplifies Inhelder and Piaget's development and offers a standard method for examining patterns of universal development. The Complexity Hierarchy Model (MHC) is not based on the valuation of domain-specific information. It divides the Hierarchical Complexity Order of the task to be handled from the Stage's performance on such tasks. Stages are a sequence of hierarchical complexity of tasks performed by participants. He extends the eight stages of Piaget (counting half stage) to fifteen stages. The stages are: 0 Calculations; 1 Sensorics & amp; Motorcycle; 2 Circular motor-sensor; 3 sensory-motor; 4 Nominal; 5 Sentential; 6 Preoperative; 7 Main; 8 Concrete; 9 Abstract; 10 Formal; 11 Systematic; 12 Metasistematis; 13 Paradigmatic; 14 Paradigmatic cross; 15 Meta-Cross-paradigmatic. The order of complexity of the task hierarchy predicts how difficult the performance with R starts from 0.9 to 0.98.

At MHC, there are three major axioms for an order to be fulfilled in order for a higher task to coordinate the next sequence of tasks. Axiom is the rule followed to determine how MHC actions are ordered to form a hierarchy. These axioms are: a) defined in terms of tasks in the next lower order of tasks of hierarchical complexity; b) is defined as a high order task action that governs two or more less complex actions; ie, more complex actions determine the way in which less complex actions are combined; c) defined as lower duty action should be performed not arbitrarily.

Ecological system theory

The theory of ecological systems, originally formulated by Urie Bronfenbrenner, determines four types of stratified environmental systems, with two-way influences within and between systems. The four systems are microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems, and macrosystems. Each system contains roles, norms, and rules that can shape development strongly. Microsystems are a direct environment in our lives like our homes and schools. Mesosystem is how the relationship is connected to a micro system. Exosystem is a larger social system in which children do not play a role. Macrosystem refers to cultural values, customs and laws of society.

Microsystems are the immediate environment that surrounds and affects individuals (eg school or home settings). The mesosystem is a combination of two microsystems and how they affect each other (eg, relatives at home versus peer relationships at school). An ecosystem is an interaction between two or more indirectly connected arrangements (eg, a father's job requiring more extra time to end up affecting the performance of his daughter at school because she can no longer help with her homework). Macrosystems are broader considering socioeconomic, cultural, faith, moral and moral status (eg, a child from a richer family see colleagues from less wealthy families as lowly people for that reason). Finally, chronosystems refer to the chronological nature of life events and how they interact and change their individuals and circumstances through transition (eg, a mother loses her own mother because of illness and no longer has support in her life).

Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's main statement on this theory, the Human Development Ecology has had a profound influence on the way psychologists and others approached the study of human beings and their environment. As a result of this conceptualization development, these environments - from family to economic and political structures - have been seen as part of the journey of life from childhood to adulthood.

Proximal development zone

Lev Vygotsky is a Soviet-era Russian theologian, who argues that children learn through direct experience and social interaction with their cultural members. Unlike Piaget, he claims that timely and sensitive intervention by adults when a child is on the edge of learning a new task (called a "proximal development zone") can help children learn new tasks. The role of the adult is often referred to as a skilled "teacher", while the child is considered a student who studies through an educational process often called "cognitive apprenticeship." Martin Hill states that "The world of reality does not apply to a child's mind." This technique is called " scaffolding, "because the technique is based on the knowledge that children have with new knowledge that adults can help children learn. Vygotsky strongly focuses on the role of culture in determining the pattern of child development, arguing that development moves from social to individual level. In other words, Vygotsky claims that psychology should focus on the advancement of human consciousness through the relationships of individuals and their environment. He feels that if scholars continue to ignore this relationship, then this abandonment will hamper the full understanding of human consciousness.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a paradigm in psychology that characterizes learning as an active process of building knowledge. Individuals create meaning for themselves or understand new information by selecting, organizing, and integrating information with other knowledge, often in the context of social interaction. Constructivism can occur in two ways: individual and social. Individual constructivism is when one builds knowledge through the cognitive process of their own experience rather than by memorizing facts given by others. Social constructivism is when individuals build knowledge through the interaction between the knowledge they bring to the situation and the social or cultural exchange within the content.

Jean Piaget, a Swiss development psychologist, proposes that learning is an active process because children learn through experience and make mistakes and solve problems. Piaget proposes that learning should be intact by helping students understand the meaning constructed.

Evolutionary developmental psychology

The evolutionary developmental psychology is a research paradigm that applies the basic principles of Darwinian evolution, especially natural selection, to understanding the development of human behavior and cognition. It involves the study of the genetic and environmental mechanisms underlying the development of social and cognitive competence, as well as the epigenetic process (gene-environment interaction) that adapts this competency to local conditions.

EDPs consider both the distinctive features of well-developed ontogeny (developmental adaptation), as well as individual differences in behavior, from an evolutionary perspective. While the evolutionary view tends to regard largely individual differences as the result of random genetic sounds (evolutionary by-products) and/or peculiarities (eg peer group, education, environment, and opportunity meeting) rather than natural selection products, the EDP insists that natural selection can support the emergence of individual differences through "the plasticity of adaptive development." From this perspective, human development follows alternative biography strategies in response to environmental variability, rather than following a typical pattern of species development.

EDP ​​is closely related to the theoretical framework of psychological evolution (EP), but also differs from EP in some domains, including research emphasis (EDP focuses on adaptation of ontogeny, as opposed to adult adaptation) and ontogenetic considerations and nearest environmental factors (ie, how developments occur) in addition to the more important factors (ie, why development occurs), which is the focus of mainstream evolutionary psychology.

Attachment theory

Attachment Theory, originally developed by John Bowlby, focuses on the importance of meaningful open, intimate, and emotional relationships. The appendix is ​​described as a powerful biological or life-support system that evolved to ensure the survival of the baby. A child who is threatened or stressed will move toward a caregiver that creates a sense of physical, emotional and psychological security for the individual. Attachment feed on body contact and intimacy. Then Mary Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation protocol and the concept of a secure base.

Theorists have proposed four types of attachment styles: safe, anxious-dodging, anxious, and irregular. Secure attachment is a healthy attachment between the baby and the caregiver. It is characterized by trust. Anxiety-avoidant is an insecure attachment between baby and caregiver. This is characterized by infant's indifference to caregivers. Anxious resistance is an insecure attachment between a baby and a caregiver characterized by suffering from a baby when parted and angry when reunited. Unorganized is an attachment style without a consistent response pattern after the return of the parent.

A child can be hindered in his natural tendency to form attachment. Some babies are raised without stimulation and regular caregiver attention or are locked under conditions of extreme harassment or neglect. The possible short-term effects of this plunder are anger, despair, release, and temporary delay in intellectual development. Long-term effects include increased aggression, attachment behavior, detachments, psychosomatic disorders, and an increased risk of depression as adults.

Attachment styles can affect relationships among people. Attachment is established in early childhood and attachment continues into adulthood. An example of a safe attachment that continues in adulthood is when the person feels confident and able to meet his or her own needs. An example of anxious attachment during adulthood is when adults choose a partner with an avoidance of the attachment.

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Big debates

Nature vs nurture

A significant problem in developmental psychology is the relationship between innateness and the influence of the environment in terms of certain aspects of development. This is often referred to as "nature and nurture" or nativism versus empiricism. A developmental record of native people would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are determined by the genes of the organism.

The empirical perspective will argue that the process is obtained in interaction with the environment. Currently developmental psychologists rarely take polarized positions in relation to most aspects of development; instead they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One way this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of evolutionary developmental psychology.

One area in which this innateness debate has been described prominently is in research on language acquisition. The main question in this area is whether certain traits of human language are genetically determined or can be obtained through learning. The empirical position on language acquisition issues indicates that the language input provides the necessary information necessary to study the language structure and that the infant acquires the language through a statistical learning process. From this perspective, language can be obtained through general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning.

The nativist position argues that the input of the language is too poor for infants and children to acquire language structures. Linguist Noam Chomsky asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the input language, there is a universal grammar that applies to all human languages ​​and predetermined. This has led to the idea that there are special cognitive modules that are suitable for language learning, often called language acquisition devices. Chomsky's criticism of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is considered by many to be a key turning point in the decline in the superiority of behaviorism theory in general. But Skinner's conception of "Verbal Behavior" is not dead, perhaps in part because it has produced a successful practical application.

Continuity vs discontinuity

Because theorists believe that development is a smooth and sustainable process, individuals gradually add more types of same skills throughout their lives. However, other theorists think that development occurs in discontinuous stages. People change quickly and step into new levels, and then change very little for the time being. With each new step, the person shows interest and responds to the world qualitatively.

Stability vs change

This issue involves the extent to which we become the older interpretation of our initial experience or whether we develop into something different from who we are at the starting point of development. It considers the extent to which early experience (especially infancy) or subsequent experience is a key determinant of a person's development.

Most experts of age development, recognizing that extreme positions are not wise. Therefore, the key to a comprehensive understanding of development at any stage requires the interaction of different factors and not just one.

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Development mechanism

Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time but also trying to explain the internal principles and work that underlie these changes. Psychologists have sought to better understand these factors by using models. Developmental models are sometimes computational, but not necessary.

A model should easily describe the means used by a process. This is sometimes done referring to brain changes that may correspond to behavioral changes during development. Development account calculations often use either symbolic, connectionist (neural network), or dynamic system model to explain the development mechanism.

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Research area

Cognitive development

Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which babies and children acquire, develop, and use internal mental abilities such as: problem solving, memory, and language. The main topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisition and the development of perceptual and motor skills. Piaget was one of the most influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His theory shows that development progresses through a series of stages from childhood to adulthood and that there is a point or end.

Other accounts, such as Lev Vygotsky, have stated that development does not progress through the stages, but the process of development that begins at birth and continues until death is too complex for such structures and finances. On the contrary, from this point of view, the process of development continues in a more sustainable way. Thus, development should be analyzed, rather than being treated as a product to obtain.

K. Warner Schaie has expanded the study of cognitive development into adulthood. Instead of stable as a teenager, Schaie sees adults as advancing in the application of their cognitive abilities.

Modern cognitive development has integrated the cognitive psychological and psychological considerations of individual differences into developmental interpretations and models. In particular, neo-Piagetian cognitive development theory suggests that successive levels or stages of cognitive development are associated with improved processing efficiency and working memory capacity. This increase explains the difference between stage, development to higher stage, and individual differences of children of same age and grade. However, other theories have moved from the Piagetian stage theory, and are influenced by domain-specific information processing accounts, which place that development guided by evolution-specific and content-specific information processing mechanisms.

Social and emotional development

Developmental psychologists who are interested in social development examine how individuals develop social and emotional competence. For example, they learn how children form friendships, how they understand and handle emotions, and how identity develops. Research in this field may involve the study of the relationship between cognition or cognitive development and social behavior.

Emotional or ER regulations refer to an individual's ability to modulate emotional responses in various contexts. In young children, this modulation is partially controlled externally, by parents and other authority figures. As children develop, they take more responsibility for their internal state. Studies have shown that ER development is affected by emotional regulation that children observe in parents and caregivers, the emotional climate at home, and the reactions of parents and carers to the emotions of children.

Music also has an influence in stimulating and enhancing the senses of a child through self-expression.

The social and emotional development of a child may be disrupted by motor coordination problems as evidenced by the environmental stress hypothesis. The environmental hypothesis explains how children with coordination problems and developmental coordination disorders are exposed to some psychosocial consequences that act as secondary stress, leading to increased internalization symptoms such as depression and anxiety. Motor coordination problems affect fine motor movement and coarse and perceptual motor skills. The commonly identified secondary stressors include a tendency for children with poor motor skills to be less likely to participate in organized play with other children and more likely to feel socially isolated.

Social and emotional development focuses on five key areas: Self Awareness, Self Management, Social Awareness, Relationship Skills, and Responsible Decision Making.

Physical development

Physical development concerns physical maturation of a person's body until it reaches adult stature. Although physical growth is a very regular process, all children differ greatly in their growth time. Studies are underway to analyze how time differences affect and are related to other variables of developmental psychology such as the speed of information processing. The traditional steps of physical maturity use less X-rays in current practice, compared to simple measurements of body parts such as height, weight, head circumference, and arm range.

Several other studies and practices with physical developmental psychology are the phonological abilities of 5- to 11-year-old adults, and the controversial hypothesis of left-handed people is delayed maturally compared with the right hand. A study by Eaton, Chipperfield, Ritchot, and Kostiuk in 1996 was found in three different samples with no difference between the right and left hands.

Memory development

Researchers interested in memory development see how our memories evolve from childhood and beyond. According to the Fuzzy-trace theory, we have two separate memory processes: word by word and essence. These two traces begin to evolve at different times as well as at different speeds. Children as young as 4 years have verbatim memory, memory for surface information, which increases to early adulthood, at which point it begins to decline. On the other hand, our capacity for core memory, memory for semantic information, increases up to early adulthood, at which point it is consistent through old age. Furthermore, our reliance on core memory traces increases with age.

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Research methods and design

Primary research method

Developmental psychology uses many research methods used in other psychological fields. However, infants and children can not be tested in the same way as adults, so different methods are often used to study their development.

Developmental psychologists have a number of methods for studying changes in individuals over time. Common research methods include systematic observations, including naturalistic observations or structured observations; self reports, which can be either a clinical interview or a structured interview; method of clinical study or case study; and ethnography or participant observation. These methods differ in terms of controls undertaken by researchers on the conditions of the study, and how they construct ideas about which variables will be studied. Any developmental inquiry can be characterized in terms of whether the underlying strategy involves experimental , correlational , or case study approach. The experimental method involves "the actual manipulation of different treatments, circumstances, or events in which the participant or subject is exposed; experimental design shows a causal relationship." This method allows for strong conclusions to be made of causal relations between the manipulations of one or more independent variables and subsequent behavior, as measured by the dependent variable. The advantage of using this research method is to allow the determination of causal relationships between hand variables, the limitations being that the data obtained in artificial environments may be less generalizability.The correlational method of exploring the relationship between two or more events by gathering information about these variables without researcher intervention. The advantage of using correlational design is to estimate the strength and direction of relationships among variables in the natural environment; however, the limitatio n is that it does not allow the determination of relationships chapter-effect among various variables. The case study approach allows an inquiry to gain an in-depth understanding of individual participants by collecting data based on interviews, structured questionnaires, observations, and test scores. Each of these methods has strengths and weaknesses but the right experimental method is the preferred method of developmental scientists because it provides a controlled situation and a catchable conclusion about causal relationships.

Design research

Most developmental studies, regardless of whether they use experimental, correlational, or case study methods, can also be constructed using a research design. The study design is a logical framework used to make key comparisons in research studies such as:

• cross-sectional design
• longitudinal design
• sequential design
• microgenetic design

In longitudinal studies, researchers observed many individuals born at or around the same time (group) and made new observations as members of the cohort age. This method can be used to draw conclusions about the type of development that is universal (or normative) and occurs in most group members. For example, longitudinal studies of early literary development are examined in detail the initial literacy experience of one child in each of 30 families.

Researchers can also observe varied ways of development among individuals, and hypothesize about the causes of variation in their data. Longitudinal research often takes a lot of time and money, making them unfeasible in some situations. Also, since group members all experience unique historical events for their generation, the normative development trend seems to be, in fact, universal only to their group.

In a cross-sectional study, researchers looked at the differences between individuals of different ages at the same time. This generally requires fewer resources than the longitudinal method, and since individuals come from different groups, a common historical event is not so much a confounding factor. In the same way, however, cross-sectional research may not be the most effective way to study the differences between participants, since these differences may not come from their different ages but from their exposure to different historical events.

The third study design, sequential design, incorporates both methodologies. Here, a researcher observes different members of the birth cohort at the same time, and then tracks all participants over time, mapping changes in groups. While more resource-intensive, the aid format is in a clearer distinction between what changes can be attributed to the individual environment or the history of those who are truly universal.

Because each method has several weaknesses, developmental psychologists rarely rely on one study or even one method to reach a conclusion by finding consistent evidence from as many convergent sources as possible.

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Life stage of psychological development

Prenatal development

Prenatal developments appeal to psychologists who investigate the context of early psychological development. All prenatal development involves three main stages: germinal stage, embryonic stage and fetal stage. Germinal stage begins at conception for up to 2 weeks; embryonic stage means progression from 2 weeks to 8 weeks; the stage of the fetus represents 9 weeks until the birth of the baby. The senses develop in the uterus itself: the fetus can see and hear in the second trimester (ages 13 to 24 weeks). The sense of touch develops in the embryonic stage (5 to 8 weeks). Most billions of brain neurons are also developed by the second trimester. The baby is then born with some smell, taste and sound preferences, mostly related to the mother's environment.

Some primitive reflexes also appear before birth and still present in newborns. One hypothesis is that this reflex is of a heritage and limited to its use in early human life. Piaget's cognitive developmental theory suggests that some of the early reflexes are building blocks for the development of sensorimotor infants. For example, neck tonic reflexes can foster development by bringing the object to the baby's field of view.

Other reflexes, such as walk reflexes, seem to be replaced by more sophisticated voluntary controls in infancy. This may be because babies get too much weight after birth to be strong enough to use reflexes, or because reflexes and subsequent developments are functionally different. It has also been suggested that some reflexes (eg moro reflex and walking) are mostly adaptations to life in the womb with little to do with early infant development. Primitive reflexes reappear in adults under certain conditions, such as neurological conditions such as dementia or traumatic lesions.

Ultrasound has shown that babies are able to perform various movements in the womb, many of which seem to be more than just simple reflexes. At the time they are born, babies can recognize and have a preference for their mother's voice which exhibits some developmental perceptions of pregnancy hearing. Prenatal development and birth complications can also be linked to neurodevelopmental disorders, for example in schizophrenia. With the advent of cognitive neuroscience, embryology and neuroscience from prenatal development is an increasing interest for the development of psychological research.

Some environmental agents - teratogens - can cause damage during the prenatal period. These include prescription and nonprescription drugs, illegal drugs, tobacco, alcohol, environmental pollutants, infectious agent agents such as the rubella virus and toxoplasmosis parasites, maternal malnutrition, mother's emotional stress, and Rh-factor mismatch between mother and child. There are many statistics that prove the effects of these substances. The main example of this is that, in America alone, about 100,000-375,000 'baby cocaine' is born every year. This is the result of pregnant women who abuse drugs during pregnancy. 'Baby cocaine' proved to have a very severe and lasting difficulty that lasted throughout infancy and right throughout childhood. It also encourages behavioral problems in affected children, as well as defects from vital organs.

Baby Age

From birth to first year, the child is referred to as a baby. Developmental psychologists vary greatly in their assessment of baby psychology, and the influence of the outside world on it, but certain aspects are relatively clear.

The majority of newborns are spent sleeping. In the beginning, this sleep is evenly distributed throughout the day and night, but after a few months, the baby generally becomes diurnal.

Babies can be seen to have six states, grouped into pairs:

• sleep well and sleep active (dream, when REM sleep happens)
• wake up calmly, and wake up
• fussy and crying

Baby's perception

Baby's perception is what the baby can see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. These five features are better known as the "five senses" of a person. Babies respond to different stimuli in these different countries.

• Vision is significantly worse in infants than in older children. Baby's view tends to blur in the early stages but increases with time. The perception of color similar to that seen in adults has been shown in infants as young as four months, using habituation methods. Babies get eyesight like adults in about six months.
• Hearing develops well before birth, unlike vision. Newborns prefer complex sounds for pure tones, human speech to other sounds, mother's voice to other sounds, and native language to other languages. Scientists believe these features may be studied in the womb. Babies are pretty good at detecting the direction the sounds come from, and by the age of 18 months their hearing ability is approximately the same as that of adults.
• The smell and sense of being present, with the baby showing different expressions of disgust or joy when presented with a pleasant smell (honey, milk, etc.) or unpleasant odors (rotten eggs) and taste (eg sour taste). The newborn baby is born with the smell and taste preferences derived from the uterus from the smell and flavor of the amniotic fluid, which in turn is affected by what the mother eats. Both breast-fed and bottle-fed infants aged 3 days prefer the smell of human milk to formula milk, which indicates a congenital preference. There is good evidence for older babies to prefer their mother's smell to others.
• Touch and taste is one of the better developed senses at birth considering it is one of the first senses that develops in the womb. This is evidenced by the primitive reflexes described above, and the development of a relatively advanced somatosensory cortex.
• Pain: The baby feels the same pain, if not more powerful than the older child but the pain reliever in the infant has not received so much attention as the field of research. Glucose is known to relieve pain in newborns.

Language

Babies are born with the ability to distinguish almost all sounds from all human languages. Babies for about six months can distinguish between phonemes in their own language, but not among similar phonemes in other languages. At this stage the baby also starts babbling, producing phonemes.

Baby cognition: Piagetian era

Piaget suggests that the baby's perception and understanding of the world depend on their motor development, which is necessary for the baby to connect visual representations, tactiles, and object motors. According to this view, it is through touching and dealing with objects that a baby develops a permanent object, an understanding that objects are solid, permanent, and continue to exist when not visible.

Piaget sensorimotor stage consists of six sub-stages (see sensorimotor stage for more details). In the early stages, development arises from movements caused by primitive reflexes. The discovery of new behaviors results from classical and operant conditioning, and habit formation. From eight months the baby is able to uncover a hidden object but will survive when the object is moved.

Piaget came to the conclusion that the baby did not have a complete understanding of the immortality of the object before 18 months after observing infant failure before this age in search of the object in which it was last seen. Instead, the baby continues to search for the object in which it was first seen, performing "A-no-B errors." Some researchers have suggested that before the age of eight to nine months, the baby's inability to comprehend the immortality of the object extends to people, which explains why babies at this age do not cry when their mothers are lost ("Invisible, out of mind").

Recent findings in baby cognition

In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers have developed many new methods to assess the baby's understanding of the world with much more precision and subtlety than Piaget could have done in his time. Since then, many studies based on these methods show that young babies understand far more about the world than the first thought.

Based on recent findings, some researchers (such as Elizabeth Spelke and Renee Baillargeon) have proposed that an understanding of a permanent object is not studied at all, but rather a part of the innate cognitive capacity of our species.

Other studies have shown that young infants in the first six months of life may have an understanding of various aspects of the world around them, including:

• initial numerical cognition, ie the ability to represent numbers and even calculate sum and subtraction operations;
• the ability to conclude the goals of the people in their neighborhood;
• the ability to engage in simple causal reasoning.

Critical development period

There is a critical period in infancy and childhood in which the development of certain perceptual, sensorimotor, social and linguistic systems is highly dependent on environmental stimulation. Wild children like Genie, deprived with adequate stimulation, fail to acquire important skills and can not learn in childhood later. The concept of a critical period is also well established in neurophysiology, from the work of Hubel and Wiesel among others.

Development delay

Children with developmental delay (DD) are at high risk for developing significant clinical and behavioral difficulties compared with typical development children (TD). However, almost all studies compare psychopathology in adolescents with DD using a TD control group from the same chronological age (CA). DD comorbidity and mental disorders are often referred to as multiple diagnoses. Epidemiological studies show that 30-50% of adolescents with DD meet clinical cutoff for behavioral and emotional problems and/or diagnosable mental disorders. Studies that included a typical TD comparison sample highlighted considerable risk differences for psychopathology, with relative risk for adolescents with DD (for adolescents with TD) ranging from 2.8 to 4.1 to 1.

Toddlers

Infants shift between the ages of one and two years to a stage of development known as toddlerhood. At this stage, the transition of infants into infancy is highlighted through self-awareness, the development of maturity in the use of language, and the presence of memory and imagination.

During infancy, babies begin to learn to walk, talk, and make decisions for themselves. An important characteristic of this age period is the development of language, in which children learn how to communicate and express their emotions and desires through the use of vocal voices, babbling, and finally words. Self control also began to develop. At this age, children take the initiative to explore, experiment, and learn from making mistakes. Caregivers are encouraging toddlers to try new things and test their limits, helping children become independent, independent, and confident. If the management is overly protective or disapproves of independent action, toddlers may begin to doubt their abilities and feel ashamed of their desire for independence. Autonomous development of children is hampered, making them less ready to face the world in the future. Toddlers also begin to identify themselves in gender roles, acting according to their perception of what men or women should do.

Socially, the humble-age period is often called the "terrible twos". Toddlers often use their new language skills to voice their desires, but are often misunderstood by parents because their language skills are just beginning to develop. Someone at this stage testing their independence is another reason behind the famous label on stage. Tantrums in frustration are also common.

Childhood

Erik Erikson divides his childhood into four stages, each with a different social crisis:

• Stage 1: Baby Period (0 to 1½) where psychosocial crisis is Trust vs. Distrust
• Stage 2: Early childhood (2½ to 3) where psychosocial crisis is Autonomy vs. Embarrassed and hesitant
• Stage 3: Age of play (3 to 5) where psychosocial crisis is Initiative vs. Guilt. (This stage is also called "pre-school age," "age of exploration" and "toy age.")
• Stage 4: School age (5 to 12) where psychosocial crisis is Industrial vs. Low self

Play (or preschool) 3-5.
In the early years, children were "totally dependent on the care of others." Therefore, they develop a "social relationship" with their caregiver and, later, with family members. During their preschool years (3-5), they "expand their social horizons" to include people outside the family.

Preoperational and operational thinking develops, which means action can be restored, and egocentric thought diminishes.

Motor skills of preschoolers are increasing so they can do more for themselves. They become more independent. No longer entirely dependent on the care of others, the world of this age group is widespread. More people have a role in shaping their personalities. Preschoolers explore and question their world. For Jean Piaget, the boy is "a small scientist who explores and ponders this exploration to improve competence" and this is done in a "very independent way."

Playing is the main activity for ages 3-5. For Piaget, through the game "a child achieves a higher level of cognitive development."

In their expanded world, children in the 3-5 age group try to find their own path. If this is done in a socially acceptable way, the child develops the initiative. If not, the child develops a sense of guilt. Children who developed "guilt" rather than "initiative" have failed Erikson's psychosocial crisis for the 3-5 age group.

Older children 6-12.
For Erik Erikson, the psychosocial crisis during childhood is a Versatile Industry vs. which, if successful, implements the sense of Competence in the child.

In all cultures, middle-age is the time to develop "skills that will be needed in their community." The school offers an arena where children can gain views about themselves as "diligent (and worthy)." They are "assessed for their schoolwork and often for their industry." They can also develop industries outside of school in sports, games, and doing volunteer work. Children who achieve "school or game success may develop feelings of competence."

The "danger" during this period is that feelings of deprivation and inferiority will develop.Parents and teachers can "undermine" the child's development by failing to recognize achievement or being overly critical of the child's efforts.Children who are "encouraged and praised" develop trust in competence they lack the drive or ability to excel causing "feelings of inadequacy and inferiority".

The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) divides the Middle Ages into two stages, 6-8 years and 9-11 years, and provides "developmental milestones for each stage."

Secondary Children (7-10).
Entering primary school, children in this age group start thinking about their future and their "place in the world". Working with other students and wanting friendships and their acceptance becomes more important. This leads to "more freedom from parents and family." As students, they develop mental and verbal skills "to describe experiences and talk about thoughts and feelings". They become less selfish and show "more attention for others".

Secondary Children (9-11).
For children ages 9-11 "friendship and peer relationships" increases strength, complexity, and importance. This results in greater "peer pressure". They grow even less dependent on their families and they are academically challenged. To face these challenges, they increase the attention span and learn to look at other points of view.

Teen

Adolescence is the period of life between the onset of puberty and full commitment to the social role of adults, such as workers, parents, and/or citizens. This is a period known for the formation of personal and social identity (see Erik Erikson) and the discovery of moral objectives (see William Damon). Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols associated with abstract concepts and formal reasoning. The return of egocentric thought often occurs early in the period. Only 35% develop capacity for formal reasoning during adolescence or adulthood. (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J. January 1998)

It is divided into three parts, namely:

1. Initial Youth: 9 to 13 years (preteens),
2. Mid-Youth Period: 13 to 15 years and
3. End of Youth Period: 15 to 18 years

Teens involuntarily explore questions like "Who am I? Who do I want?" Like toddlers, adolescents must explore, test boundaries, become autonomous, and commit to identity, or sense of self. Different roles, behaviors, and ideologies should be attempted to choose identity. Barriers and the inability to choose a call can be caused by a failure to achieve a sense of identity through, for example, friends.

Initial adult

Early adulthood, according to theorists such as Erik Erikson, is a stage in which development is primarily focused on maintaining relationships. Examples include creating bonds of intimacy, maintaining friendships, and ultimately making the family. Some theorists claim that the development of intimacy skills depends on the resolution of the previous stage of development. The sense of identity acquired in the earlier stages is also necessary for intimacy to flourish. If these skills are not learned, the alternatives are alienation, isolation, fear of commitment, and an inability to depend on others.

The related framework for studying this part of the life span is a growing adult age. Scholars of newly emerging adults, such as Jeffrey Arnett, are not necessarily interested in developing relationships. On the contrary, this concept shows that the transition of people after their adolescence into a period not characterized as building relationships and a sense of overall firmness with life, but with years of living with parents, the phase of self-discovery, and experimentation.

Adult middle

The middle adult generally refers to the period between the ages of 25 to 69. During this period, middle-aged adults experience a conflict between generativity and stagnation. They may feel that they have contributed to society, their next generation, or their immediate community; or develop a sense of no purpose.

Physically, middle-aged muscle strength decreases, reaction time, sensory acuity, and cardiac output. Also, women experience menopause and a sharp decline in the hormone estrogen. Men experience an equivalent endocrine system up to menopause. Andropause in males is a hormonal fluctuation with physical and psychological effects that can be similar to those seen in postmenopausal women. As a man of age lowers testosterone levels can contribute to mood swings and decreased sperm count. Sexual responses may also be affected, including late erections and longer periods of penile stimulation required to achieve ejaculation.

elderly

The World Health Organization finds "there is no general agreement on the age at which a person gets old." Most "developed countries" set the age of 60 or 65 years. However, in developing countries the inability to make "active contributions" to society, not chronological age, marks the beginning of old age. According to Erikson's stage of psychosocial development, old age is a stage in which individuals judge the quality of their lives. In reflecting on their lives, people in this age group develop a sense of integrity if they decide that their lives are successful or despair if the evaluation of one's life shows a failure to achieve the goal.

Physically, parents experience decreased muscle strength, reaction time, stamina, hearing, perceptual distance, and sense of smell. They are also more susceptible to diseases such as cancer and pneumonia due to the weakened immune system. Programs aimed at balance, muscle strength, and mobility have been shown to reduce disability among the severely handicapped (but not worse).

Sexual expression is highly dependent on the individual's emotional and physical health. Many older adults continue to be sexually active and satisfied with their sexual activity.

Mental disintegration may also occur, leading to dementia or diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. It is generally believed that crystallized intelligence increases until old age, while fluid intelligence decreases with age. Whether normal intelligence increases or decreases with age depends on size and study. Longitudinal studies show that perceptual speed, inductive reasoning, and decreased spatial orientation. An article on adult cognitive development reported that cross-sectional studies show that "some ability remained stable until old age."

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Parenting

The only parenting variable typically has about 20 to 50 percent of the variance in the child's outcome.

All parents have their own parenting style. The nurturing style, according to Kimberly Kopoko, is "based on two aspects of parenting behavior: control and warmth.Content control refers to the extent to which parents manage the behavior of their children.The warmth of a parent refers to the extent to which the parent receives and is responsive to the behavior of the children them. "

Parenting style

The following parenting styles have been described in the child development literature:

• Authoritarian parenting is characterized as a parent who has high, responsive, and demanding parents, but low levels of negativity and conflict. This parent is firm but not intrusive or too restrictive. This nurturing method is associated with more positive social and academic outcomes. Interestingly, the beneficial results of authoritative parenting are not always universal. Among African American adolescents, authoritative parents are not associated with academic achievement without peer support for achievement. Children raised by authoritative parents are "more likely to be independent, independent, socially acceptable, academically successful, and well-behaved They tend to report depression and anxiety, and are less likely to engage in antisocial behaviors such as delinquency and use drugs. "
• Authoritarian parenting is characterized by low levels of warmth and low response with high levels of demands and control. These parents focus on obedience and they monitor their children regularly. In general, this nurturing style is associated with maladaptive outcomes. Interestingly, the result is more dangerous for middle-class boys than girls, preschool white girls than black preschool daughters, and for white boys rather than Hispanic boys. In addition, the negative effects of authoritarian parents among Asian Americans can be offset by positive peer support. Finally, among African-Americans, some elements of authoritarian parenting such as strong control and physical discipline do not serve as predictive factors for negative outcomes.
• Permissive parenting patterns are characterized by high response rates combined with low demands. This parent is soft and does not need to behave mature. They allow high self-regulation and usually avoid confrontation. Compared to children raised with authoritative styles, preschool girls raised in permissive families are less assertive. In addition, preschoolers of both sexes are less cognitively competent than children raised with authoritative parenting styles.
• Rejecting or ignoring parents is the last category. This is characterized by low levels of demands and responses. These parents are not usually involved in their child's life, have no structure in their parenting style and are not supportive. Children in this category are usually the least competent of all categories.

Mom and dad factors

The role of parenting in child development usually focuses on the role of the mother. The latest literature, however, has looked towards the father as having an important role in child development. Affirming the role of the father, studies have shown that 15-month-olds benefit significantly from substantial engagement with their fathers. In a sense

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