Adult development includes changes that occur in the biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence to the end of one's life. These changes can be gradual or quick, and may reflect positively, negatively, or no change from the level of the previous function. Changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by the biological theories of adult development and aging. Biological changes affect the changes of psychological and interpersonal/social development, often described by the theory of the stage of human development. Stage theories typically focus on the "age-appropriate" development task that must be achieved at every stage. Erik Erikson and Carl Jung proposed a theory of human developmental stages covering all spans of life, and emphasized the potential for a very late, positive change in life.
The concept of maturity has a legal and socio-cultural definition. The definition of adult law is a person who has reached the age in which they are held responsible for their own actions, and therefore legally responsible for them. This is called the majority age, which is age 18 in most cultures, although there are variations from 16 to 21. The socio-cultural definition as an adult is based on what normatively views culture as a necessary criterion for adulthood, which in turn affects the lives of individuals in that culture. This may or may not coincide with the legal definition. The current view of adult development in late life focuses on the concept of successful aging, defined as "... the possibility of low disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active involvement with life."
The Biomedical Theory states that a person can age successfully by treating physical health and minimizing loss in function, whereas psychosocial theories place that utilizing social and cognitive resources, such as positive attitudes or social support from neighbors and friends, is the key to successful aging. Jeanne Louise Calment exemplifies successful aging as the longest living person, dying at the age of 122. Long life can be attributed to genetics (both parents live to the 80s) and an active lifestyle and optimistic attitude. She enjoys a lot of hobbies and physical activity and believes that laughter contributes to her longevity. She poured olive oil on all her food and skin, which she believed also contributed to her long life and youthful appearance.
Video Adult development
Contemporary and classical theory
The changes in adulthood have been explained by a number of theories and metatesori, which serve as a framework for adult development research.
Age development theory
The development of the age range is an overall framework that considers individual development (ontogeny) from conception to old age. This framework considers the accumulation of long-term developmental gains and losses, with the proportion of profits relative to losses that decrease over a person's lifetime. According to this theory, the development of life span has many paths (positive, negative, stable) and causes (biological, psychological, social, and cultural). Individual variation is the hallmark of this theory - not all individuals develop and age at the same level and in the same way.
Erik Erikson developed an extended stage of ego development through childhood, adolescence and adulthood. He was trained in psychoanalysis and greatly influenced by Freud, but unlike Freud, Erikson believed that social interaction was essential to the individual's psychosocial development. The stage theory consists of eight stages in life from birth to old age, each characterized by a specific developmental task. During each stage, one development task is dominant, but can be taken to the next stage as well. According to Erikson, individuals may experience tension as they progress to a new stage of development, and strive to build balance at every stage.
- Stage 1 - Trust vs. Unbelief (0 to 1.5 yrs)
- Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 - 3 years)
- Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilty (3 - 6 years)
- Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty)
- Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)
- Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)
- Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adult)
- Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair (final adult)
Michael Commons Theory
The Michael Commons Hierarchy Complex Model (MHC) is an enhancement and simplification of Inhelder and Piaget development models. It offers a standard method for examining patterns of universal development. In order for one task to be more hierarchically complex than the other, the new task must meet three requirements: 1) Must be defined in terms of lower phase actions; 2) should coordinate the steps below; 3) must do so in an unauthorized manner
- 0 Calculations
- 1 Sensorics & amp; Motor
- 2 Circular motor-sensor
- 3 Sensory motor
- 4 Nominal
- 5 Sentence
- 6 Preoperational
- 7 Main
- 8 Concrete
- 9 Abstract
- 10 Formal
- 11 Systematic
- 12 Metasistematic
- 13 Paradigmatic
- 14 Paradigmatic crossing
- 15 Meta-Cross-paradigmatic Carl Jung's
Carl Jung's Carl Jung's Theory
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychoanalyst, formulates the four stages of development and believes that development is a function of reconciliation of opposing forces.
- Childhood: (born to puberty) Childhood has two substages. The ancient stage is characterized by sporadic consciousness, while the monarchic stage represents the beginning of logical and abstract thought. The ego starts to flourish.
- Youth: (puberty to 35 - 40) Mature sexuality, greater awareness, and the realization that the no-load days of childhood are lost forever. People are trying to gain independence, seek a mate, and build a family.
- Medium Life: (40-60) The realization that you will not live forever creates tension. If you are desperately trying to cling to teenagers, you will fail in the process of self-realization. Jung believes that in middle age, someone faces a person's shadow. Religiosity can increase during this period, according to Jung.
- Old Age: (60 years) Awareness is reduced. Jung thinks that death is the ultimate goal of life. By realizing this, people will not face death with fear, but with the hope of rebirth. Daniel Levinson's Theory of Daniel Levinson
Daniel Levinson's theory is a set of psychosocial 'seasons' through which adults must pass as they enter early and middle-aged adulthood. Each season is created by the challenge of building or maintaining the structure of life, by social norms that apply to certain age groups, especially in relation to relationships and careers. The process that underlies all these stages is individuation - a movement toward balance and wholeness over time. Key stages that he understood in early adulthood and middle age are as follows:
- Early Adult Transition (Ages 16-24)
- Building the Structure of Life (Ages 24-28)
- Settling down (Ages 29-34)
- Be Your Own Man (Ages 35-40)
- Midlife Transition
- Restabilization, to the End of Adult (Age 45 and above)
The 'biopsychosocial' approach to adult development states that in order to understand human development, its biological, psychological, and social level analyzes should be included. There are various biopsychosocial meta-models, but they all require a commitment to the following four premises:
- Human development occurs simultaneously at the biological, psychological, and social level throughout life, and a complete descriptive account of development must include all three levels.
- Development on each of these three levels reciprocally affects the other two levels; therefore nature (biology) and nurture (social environment) are in a constant complex interaction, when considering how and why psychological developments occur.
- Biological, psychological, and social descriptions and explanations are all equally valid to each other, and no level has a causal advantage over the other two.
- Every aspect of human development is best explained and explained in relation to the whole person and its social context, as well as its biological and cognitive parts. This can be called a holistic or contextual perspective, and can be contrasted with a reductionist approach to development, which tends to focus only on biological or mechanistic explanations.
Normative physical changes in adult
Physical development in middle age and beyond includes changes in the biological level (aging) and greater organ and musculoskeletal levels. Sensory changes and degeneration are common at middle age. Degeneration may include breaking of muscles, bones and joints, leading to physical illnesses such as sarcopenia or arthritis.
At the sensory level, changes occur in vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in middle age include our ability to see near objects and our ability to hear high notes. Other developmental changes in vision may include cataracts, glaucoma, and loss of the central visual field with macular degeneration. Hearing also becomes disrupted in middle age and aging adults, especially in men. In the past 30 years, hearing loss has doubled. Hearing Aids as an aid to hearing loss still makes many people dissatisfied with their hearing quality. Smell can occur simultaneously with a change in the sense of taste. "Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for deficits and other diseases" and can also lead to a decrease in satisfaction in flavors while eating. The disadvantages of the sense of touch are usually seen when there is a decrease in the ability to detect vibration stimuli. A loss of touch can jeopardize a person's fine motor skills such as writing and using equipment. The ability to sense painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.
Physical damage to the body begins to increase in middle age and late life, and includes degeneration of muscles, bones, and joints. Sarcopenia, a normal developmental change, is the degeneration of muscle mass, which includes strength and quality. This change occurs even in those who consider themselves athletes, and accelerated by physical activity. Many contributing factors that may cause sarcopenia include neurological and hormonal changes, inadequate nutrition, and physical activity. Apoptosis has also been suggested as the underlying mechanism in the development of sarcopenia. The prevalence of sarcopenia increases with age and is associated with increased likelihood of increased disability and limited freedom among parents. Approaches to prevent and treat sarcopenia are being explored by researchers. Specific preventive approaches include progressive, safe and effective endurance training for the elderly.
Developmental changes to various organs and organ systems occur throughout life. These changes affect responses to stress and illness, and can compromise the body's ability to overcome organ demand. Changes in heart function, lungs, and even skin in old age can be attributed to factors such as cell death or endocrine hormone. There is a change in the reproductive system in middle-aged adults, especially menopause for women, end of permanent fertility. In men, hormonal changes also affect their reproductive and sexual physiology, but these changes are not as extreme as that experienced by women.
Diseases associated with aging
As the adult body undergoes various physical changes that lead to declining health, a higher risk of contracting various diseases, both physical and mental, is possible.
- Cancer
Scientists have made a special connection between aging and cancer. It has been proven that the majority of cancer cases occur in those over the age of 50 years. This may be due to a decrease in the strength of the immune system as one of the existing ages or conditions. There are various symptoms associated with cancer, usually growth or tumor can be an indicator of cancer. Radiation, chemotherapy, and in some cases, surgery, are used to treat cancer.
- Arthritis
Osteoarthritis is one of the most common diseases experienced in adults as they age. Although there are various types of arthritis they all include very similar symptoms: joint pain, stiff joints, advanced joint pain, and joint movement problems.
- Cardiovascular disease
It has been found that older age does not increase risk factors for acquiring cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring cardiovascular disease, which is also common in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include various heart conditions that can cause heart attacks or other heart-related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are commonly used to prevent cardiovascular disease.
- Immune system
Infection occurs more easily as you age, as your immune system begins to slow down and becomes less effective. Aging also changes the way the immune system reacts to infection, making new infections more difficult to detect and attack. Essentially, the immune system has a higher chance to compromise the older.
Neurogenesis and adult neuroplasticity
New neurons are constantly formed from stem cells in adult brain parts throughout adulthood, a process called adult neurogenesis. The hippocampus is the area of ​​the brain most active in neurogenesis. Research shows that thousands of new neurons are produced in the hippocampus every day. The brain is constantly changing and rolling itself throughout adulthood, a process known as neuroplasticity. The evidence shows that the brain changes in response to diet, exercise, social environment, stress, and toxic intake. These same external factors also affect genetic expression throughout adult life - a phenomenon known as genetic plasticity.
Maps Adult development
Non-normative cognitive changes in adult
Dementia is characterized by persistent and multiple cognitive deficits within the domain including, but not limited to, memory, language, and visuospatial skills and may result from central nervous system dysfunction. Two forms of dementia exist: degenerative and nondegenerative. The development of nondegenerative dementias, such as head trauma and cerebral infections, can be slowed or stopped but the degenerative forms of dementia, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington can not be changed and can not be cured.
Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) was discovered in 1907 by Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German neuropathologist and psychiatrist. The physiological abnormalities associated with AD include neurofibrillary and tangled plaques. Neuritic plaques, which target the outer regions of the cortex, consist of a drying neuronal material of protein, amyloid-beta. Neurofibrillary tangles, paired helical filaments that contain excessive phosphorylated tau proteins, are located inside the nerve cells. Early symptoms of AD include difficulty remembering names and events, while later symptoms include impaired judgment, disorientation, confusion, behavioral changes, and difficulty speaking, swallowing, and walking. After initial diagnosis, a person with DA may live, on average, an additional 3 to 10 years with this disease. By 2013, it is estimated that 5.2 million Americans of all ages have AD. Environmental factors such as head trauma, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes can increase the likelihood of AD.
Huntington's Disease
Huntington's disease (HD) is named after George Huntington is a disorder caused by an inherited defect in a single gene on chromosome 4, resulting in progressive mental loss and physical control. HD affects muscle coordination (involuntary writhing) and leads to cognitive decline and psychiatric problems. Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 30-50 but can occur at any age, including adolescence. There is currently no cure for HD and treatment focuses on symptom management and quality of life. Current estimates claim that 1 in 10,000 Americans have HD, however, 1 in 250,000 is at risk of inheriting from parents. Most individuals with HD live 10 to 20 years after diagnosis.
Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease (PD) was first described by James Parkinson in 1817. It usually affects people over the age of 50. PD is associated with damage to nerve cells that produce dopamine. Common symptoms experienced by people with PD include trembling of hands, arms, legs, jaws, or head; stiffness (stiffness in the legs and the middle part of the body); bradykinesia; and postural instability, leading to impaired balance and/or coordination. PD can not be cured, but diagnosis and treatment can help relieve symptoms. Treatment options include drugs such as Carbidopa/Levodopa (L-dopa), which reduces the severity of motor symptoms in patients. Alternative treatment options include non-pharmacological therapy. Surgery (pallidotomy, thalamotomy) is often seen as the last possible option.
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Mental health in adulthood and old age
Older adults represent a significant proportion of the population, and this proportion is expected to increase over time. Older adult mental health problems are important at the level of care and support, as well as policy issues. The prevalence of suicide among adults is higher than in other age groups.
Depression
Depression is one of the most common disorders that occur in old age and comorbid with other physical and psychological conditions, possibly because of the stress caused by this condition. In older adults, depression presents as age-related disorders such as memory and psychomotor speed. Research shows that higher levels of exercise can reduce the likelihood of depression in older adults even after considering factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, rehabilitation of prescribed antidepressants and behaviors, well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a relatively rare diagnosis in older adults and it is difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders late in life are more likely to be under-diagnosed due to medical comorbidities, cognitive decline, and changes in the life circumstances that young adults are not facing. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that the 6-month prevalence rate for anxiety disorders was the lowest for age 65 and older groups. A recent study found that the prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in adults aged 55 years or older in the United States was 33.7% with onset before age 50 years.
ADHD is generally believed to be a disorder of children and is not commonly studied in adults. However, ADHD in adults results in lower household incomes, poorer educational attainment and higher risks of marital and substance abuse problems. Activities such as driving may be affected; adults who have no concern because ADHD has an increased rate of car accidents. Adults with ADHD tend to be more creative, passionate, aware of activities, and able to perform many tasks when interested in a particular topic.
Other mental disorders
The effects of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, other forms of psychosis, and bipolar disorder in adulthood are largely mediated by the environmental context. Those in hospitals and nursing homes are different at risk for many disorders compared to adults living in communities. The differences in how these environments treat mental illness and provide social support can help explain the differences and lead to better knowledge of how these disorders are manifested in adulthood.
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Optimize mental health and health in adulthood
Exercising four to six times a week for thirty to sixty minutes has physical and cognitive effects such as lowering blood sugar and improving neural plasticity. Physical activity reduces the loss of function by 10% every decade after the age of 60 years and the active individual decreases the rate of reduction by half. Cardio activity such as walking promotes endurance while strength, flexibility, and balance can all be enhanced through Tai Chi, yoga, and water aerobics. Diets containing foods with calcium, fiber, and potassium are essential for good health while eliminating foods with high sodium or fat content. A balanced diet can improve disease resistance and improve management of chronic health problems, making nutrition an important factor for health and well-being in adulthood.
Mental stimulation and optimism are vital for health and wellbeing in late adulthood. Adults who participate in intellectual activities stimulate each day are more likely to retain their cognitive abilities and less likely to exhibit a decrease in memory capacity. Mental sports activities such as crosswords, spatial reasoning tasks, and other mental stimulating activities can help adults improve their brain fitness. In addition, researchers have found that optimism, community involvement, physical activity and emotional support can help older adults maintain their resilience as they continue to live their life span.
Managing stress and developing coping strategies
Cognitive, physical, and social losses, as well as benefits, should be expected throughout life. Older adults usually report themselves to a higher sense of well-being than their younger counterparts because of their emotional self-organization. Researchers use Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory to explain how adults compensate for changes in their mental and physical abilities, as well as their social reality. Older adults can use internal and external resources to help resolve these changes.
The loss of loved ones and the next sadness and sorrow are the inevitable parts of life. A positive coping strategy is used when facing an emotional crisis, as well as facing daily mental and physical harm. The development of adults comes with advantages and disadvantages, and it is important to be aware and plan ahead for these changes in order for the age to succeed.
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Personality in adult
Personality and stability changes occur in adulthood. For example, self-confidence, warmth, self-control, and emotional stability increase with age, while neuroticism and openness to experience tend to decline with age.
Personality change in adult
Two types of statistics are used to classify personality changes over the life span. Changes in sequences refer to changes in the personality traits of individuals relative to other individuals. Average rate changes refer to absolute changes at the individual level of a certain nature over time.
Controversy
The plaster hypothesis refers to personality traits likely to be stable at age 30. Stability in the personality throughout adulthood has been observed in longitudinal and sequential studies. However, personality also changes. Research on Big 5 Personality traits include decreased openness and extraversion in adulthood; increased hospitality with age; peak awareness in middle age; and decreased neuroticism at the end of life. The concepts of adjustment and growth as a development process help to reconcile much evidence for the stability of personality and more evidence for personality change. There is a normative adjustment in personality with age, but personality is largely stable throughout adulthood.
![Development Stages â€]()
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Intelligence in adult
According to the lifespan approach, intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and inter-individual variability. Intellectual development throughout lifetime is characterized by decline and stability and improvement. Intelligence mechanics, the basic architecture of information processing, decline with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge gained through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.
The psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural Approach measures intelligence by assessing the way people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than with test scores.
Development trends in intelligence
Primary mental ability is a group independent of factors that contribute to intelligent behavior and includes word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, facility number, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. Primary mental ability decreases around age 60 and can disrupt the function of life. Secondary mental abilities include crystallized intelligence (knowledge gained through experience) and fluid intelligence (the ability of flexible and abstract thinking). Fluid intelligence decreases steadily in adulthood while crystallized intelligence increases and remains stable enough with age to very late in life.
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Relationships
The combination of friendship and family is a support system for many individuals and an integral part of their lives from young adults to old age.
Family
Family relations tend to be the most lasting bond created in a person's lifetime. As adults, their children often feel the obligation of duty, in which they feel obliged to care for their parents. This is very prominent in Asian culture. Marital satisfaction remains high in older couples, often increasing soon after retirement. This can be attributed to increased adulthood and reduced conflict in relationships. However, when a health problem arises, the relationship can become tense. Studies of individual husband-wife caregivers with Alzheimer's disease showed significantly lower marital satisfaction than in non-suffering partners. Most people will experience the loss of family members because of death in their lives. This life event is usually accompanied by some form of sadness, or sadness. There is no time frame set for the period of mourning after a loved one dies, but everyone experiences grief in different forms and ways.
Friends
Friendship, similar to family relationships, is often a support system for many individuals and fundamental aspects of life from young adults to old age. Social friendships are important for emotional fulfillment, behavior adjustment, and cognitive function. Research has shown that emotional attachment in relationships increases greatly with age even though the number of social relationships and the development of new relationships begins to decline. In young adulthood, friendships are based on the same peers with the same goal, although this relationship may be more transient. In older adulthood, friendship has been found much deeper and more lasting. Although the numbers are small, the quality of relationships is generally considered much stronger for older adults.
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Retirement
Retirement, or the point at which a person stops working entirely, often experiences psychological pressure or high quality time and improves subjective well-being for the individual. Most individuals choose to retire between the ages of 50 and 70, and researchers have examined how this transition affects subjective wellbeing in old age. One study examined subjective wellbeing in retirement as a function of marital quality, life journey, and gender. The results show a positive correlation between welfare for married couples who retire around the same time compared to couples in which one partner retires while the other continues to work.
Retired Community
The retired community provides for individuals who want to live independently but do not want to defend their homes. They can maintain their autonomy while living in a community with individuals of the same age as well as in the same stage of life.
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Long-term care
Assisted living facilities are a choice of residence for older adults that provide a supportive living arrangement for people in need with personal care, such as bathing or taking medication, but not so disturbed that they need 24-hour treatment. This facility provides older adults with a home-like environment and personal controls while helping to meet the daily routine of the population and special needs.
Adult custody is designed to provide social support, friendship, health care, and other services for adult family members that may pose a security risk if left alone at home while other family members, usually caregivers, should work or leave home. Adults who have cognitive impairment should be introduced with caution to adult child care.
The nursing home facilities provide patients with medical or skilled middle treatment for 24 hours. A nursing home is usually seen as the ultimate decision of choice for many family members. While patients receive comprehensive care, the cost of nursing homes can be very high with some insurance companies choosing to cover it up.
Note
External links
- Adult Development Laboratory [1]
- Adult Development Journal [2]
- Psychology and Aging [3]
- National Center for Adult Learning and Literacy Study [4]
Source of the article : Wikipedia
ADHD is generally believed to be a disorder of children and is not commonly studied in adults. However, ADHD in adults results in lower household incomes, poorer educational attainment and higher risks of marital and substance abuse problems. Activities such as driving may be affected; adults who have no concern because ADHD has an increased rate of car accidents. Adults with ADHD tend to be more creative, passionate, aware of activities, and able to perform many tasks when interested in a particular topic.
Other mental disorders
The effects of mental disorders such as schizophrenia, other forms of psychosis, and bipolar disorder in adulthood are largely mediated by the environmental context. Those in hospitals and nursing homes are different at risk for many disorders compared to adults living in communities. The differences in how these environments treat mental illness and provide social support can help explain the differences and lead to better knowledge of how these disorders are manifested in adulthood.
Optimize mental health and health in adulthood
Exercising four to six times a week for thirty to sixty minutes has physical and cognitive effects such as lowering blood sugar and improving neural plasticity. Physical activity reduces the loss of function by 10% every decade after the age of 60 years and the active individual decreases the rate of reduction by half. Cardio activity such as walking promotes endurance while strength, flexibility, and balance can all be enhanced through Tai Chi, yoga, and water aerobics. Diets containing foods with calcium, fiber, and potassium are essential for good health while eliminating foods with high sodium or fat content. A balanced diet can improve disease resistance and improve management of chronic health problems, making nutrition an important factor for health and well-being in adulthood.
Mental stimulation and optimism are vital for health and wellbeing in late adulthood. Adults who participate in intellectual activities stimulate each day are more likely to retain their cognitive abilities and less likely to exhibit a decrease in memory capacity. Mental sports activities such as crosswords, spatial reasoning tasks, and other mental stimulating activities can help adults improve their brain fitness. In addition, researchers have found that optimism, community involvement, physical activity and emotional support can help older adults maintain their resilience as they continue to live their life span.
Managing stress and developing coping strategies
Cognitive, physical, and social losses, as well as benefits, should be expected throughout life. Older adults usually report themselves to a higher sense of well-being than their younger counterparts because of their emotional self-organization. Researchers use Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory to explain how adults compensate for changes in their mental and physical abilities, as well as their social reality. Older adults can use internal and external resources to help resolve these changes.
The loss of loved ones and the next sadness and sorrow are the inevitable parts of life. A positive coping strategy is used when facing an emotional crisis, as well as facing daily mental and physical harm. The development of adults comes with advantages and disadvantages, and it is important to be aware and plan ahead for these changes in order for the age to succeed.
Personality in adult
Personality and stability changes occur in adulthood. For example, self-confidence, warmth, self-control, and emotional stability increase with age, while neuroticism and openness to experience tend to decline with age.
Personality change in adult
Two types of statistics are used to classify personality changes over the life span. Changes in sequences refer to changes in the personality traits of individuals relative to other individuals. Average rate changes refer to absolute changes at the individual level of a certain nature over time.
Controversy
The plaster hypothesis refers to personality traits likely to be stable at age 30. Stability in the personality throughout adulthood has been observed in longitudinal and sequential studies. However, personality also changes. Research on Big 5 Personality traits include decreased openness and extraversion in adulthood; increased hospitality with age; peak awareness in middle age; and decreased neuroticism at the end of life. The concepts of adjustment and growth as a development process help to reconcile much evidence for the stability of personality and more evidence for personality change. There is a normative adjustment in personality with age, but personality is largely stable throughout adulthood.
Intelligence in adult
According to the lifespan approach, intelligence is a multidimensional and multidirectional construct characterized by plasticity and inter-individual variability. Intellectual development throughout lifetime is characterized by decline and stability and improvement. Intelligence mechanics, the basic architecture of information processing, decline with age. Pragmatic intelligence, knowledge gained through culture and experience, remains relatively stable with age.
The psychometric approach assesses intelligence based on scores on standardized tests such as Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and Stanford Binet for children. The Cognitive Structural Approach measures intelligence by assessing the way people conceptualize and solve problems, rather than with test scores.
Development trends in intelligence
Primary mental ability is a group independent of factors that contribute to intelligent behavior and includes word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial visualization, facility number, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. Primary mental ability decreases around age 60 and can disrupt the function of life. Secondary mental abilities include crystallized intelligence (knowledge gained through experience) and fluid intelligence (the ability of flexible and abstract thinking). Fluid intelligence decreases steadily in adulthood while crystallized intelligence increases and remains stable enough with age to very late in life.
Relationships
The combination of friendship and family is a support system for many individuals and an integral part of their lives from young adults to old age.
Family
Family relations tend to be the most lasting bond created in a person's lifetime. As adults, their children often feel the obligation of duty, in which they feel obliged to care for their parents. This is very prominent in Asian culture. Marital satisfaction remains high in older couples, often increasing soon after retirement. This can be attributed to increased adulthood and reduced conflict in relationships. However, when a health problem arises, the relationship can become tense. Studies of individual husband-wife caregivers with Alzheimer's disease showed significantly lower marital satisfaction than in non-suffering partners. Most people will experience the loss of family members because of death in their lives. This life event is usually accompanied by some form of sadness, or sadness. There is no time frame set for the period of mourning after a loved one dies, but everyone experiences grief in different forms and ways.
Friends
Friendship, similar to family relationships, is often a support system for many individuals and fundamental aspects of life from young adults to old age. Social friendships are important for emotional fulfillment, behavior adjustment, and cognitive function. Research has shown that emotional attachment in relationships increases greatly with age even though the number of social relationships and the development of new relationships begins to decline. In young adulthood, friendships are based on the same peers with the same goal, although this relationship may be more transient. In older adulthood, friendship has been found much deeper and more lasting. Although the numbers are small, the quality of relationships is generally considered much stronger for older adults.
Retirement
Retirement, or the point at which a person stops working entirely, often experiences psychological pressure or high quality time and improves subjective well-being for the individual. Most individuals choose to retire between the ages of 50 and 70, and researchers have examined how this transition affects subjective wellbeing in old age. One study examined subjective wellbeing in retirement as a function of marital quality, life journey, and gender. The results show a positive correlation between welfare for married couples who retire around the same time compared to couples in which one partner retires while the other continues to work.
Retired Community
The retired community provides for individuals who want to live independently but do not want to defend their homes. They can maintain their autonomy while living in a community with individuals of the same age as well as in the same stage of life.
Long-term care
Assisted living facilities are a choice of residence for older adults that provide a supportive living arrangement for people in need with personal care, such as bathing or taking medication, but not so disturbed that they need 24-hour treatment. This facility provides older adults with a home-like environment and personal controls while helping to meet the daily routine of the population and special needs.
Adult custody is designed to provide social support, friendship, health care, and other services for adult family members that may pose a security risk if left alone at home while other family members, usually caregivers, should work or leave home. Adults who have cognitive impairment should be introduced with caution to adult child care.
The nursing home facilities provide patients with medical or skilled middle treatment for 24 hours. A nursing home is usually seen as the ultimate decision of choice for many family members. While patients receive comprehensive care, the cost of nursing homes can be very high with some insurance companies choosing to cover it up.
Note
External links
- Adult Development Laboratory [1]
- Adult Development Journal [2]
- Psychology and Aging [3]
- National Center for Adult Learning and Literacy Study [4]
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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