Adult development includes changes that occur in the biological and psychological domains of human life from the end of adolescence to the end of one's life. These changes can be gradual or quick, and may reflect positively, negatively, or no change from the level of the previous function. Changes occur at the cellular level and are partially explained by the biological theories of adult development and aging. Biological changes affect the changes of psychological and interpersonal/social development, often described by the theory of the stage of human development. Stage theories typically focus on the "age-appropriate" development task that must be achieved at every stage. Erik Erikson and Carl Jung proposed a theory of human developmental stages covering all spans of life, and emphasized the potential for a very late, positive change in life.
The concept of maturity has a legal and socio-cultural definition. The definition of adult law is a person who has reached the age in which they are held responsible for their own actions, and therefore legally responsible for them. This is called the majority age, which is age 18 in most cultures, although there are variations from 16 to 21. The socio-cultural definition as an adult is based on what normatively views culture as a necessary criterion for adulthood, which in turn affects the lives of individuals in that culture. This may or may not coincide with the legal definition. The current view of adult development in late life focuses on the concept of successful aging, defined as "... the possibility of low disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active involvement with life."
The Biomedical Theory states that a person can age successfully by treating physical health and minimizing loss in function, whereas psychosocial theories place that utilizing social and cognitive resources, such as positive attitudes or social support from neighbors and friends, is the key to successful aging. Jeanne Louise Calment exemplifies successful aging as the longest living person, dying at the age of 122. Long life can be attributed to genetics (both parents live to the 80s) and an active lifestyle and optimistic attitude. She enjoys a lot of hobbies and physical activity and believes that laughter contributes to her longevity. She poured olive oil on all her food and skin, which she believed also contributed to her long life and youthful appearance.
Video Adult development
Contemporary and classical theory
The changes in adulthood have been explained by a number of theories and metatesori, which serve as a framework for adult development research.
Age development theory
The development of the age range is an overall framework that considers individual development (ontogeny) from conception to old age. This framework considers the accumulation of long-term developmental gains and losses, with the proportion of profits relative to losses that decrease over a person's lifetime. According to this theory, the development of life span has many paths (positive, negative, stable) and causes (biological, psychological, social, and cultural). Individual variation is the hallmark of this theory - not all individuals develop and age at the same level and in the same way.
Erik Erikson developed an extended stage of ego development through childhood, adolescence and adulthood. He was trained in psychoanalysis and greatly influenced by Freud, but unlike Freud, Erikson believed that social interaction was essential to the individual's psychosocial development. The stage theory consists of eight stages in life from birth to old age, each characterized by a specific developmental task. During each stage, one development task is dominant, but can be taken to the next stage as well. According to Erikson, individuals may experience tension as they progress to a new stage of development, and strive to build balance at every stage.
- Stage 1 - Trust vs. Unbelief (0 to 1.5 yrs)
- Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 - 3 years)
- Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilty (3 - 6 years)
- Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty)
- Stage 5 - Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)
- Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood)
- Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adult)
- Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair (final adult)
Michael Commons Theory
The Michael Commons Hierarchy Complex Model (MHC) is an enhancement and simplification of Inhelder and Piaget development models. It offers a standard method for examining patterns of universal development. In order for one task to be more hierarchically complex than the other, the new task must meet three requirements: 1) Must be defined in terms of lower phase actions; 2) should coordinate the steps below; 3) must do so in an unauthorized manner
- 0 Calculations
- 1 Sensorics & amp; Motor
- 2 Circular motor-sensor
- 3 Sensory motor
- 4 Nominal
- 5 Sentence
- 6 Preoperational
- 7 Main
- 8 Concrete
- 9 Abstract
- 10 Formal
- 11 Systematic
- 12 Metasistematic
- 13 Paradigmatic
- 14 Paradigmatic crossing
- 15 Meta-Cross-paradigmatic Carl Jung's
Carl Jung's Carl Jung's Theory
Carl Jung, a Swiss psychoanalyst, formulates the four stages of development and believes that development is a function of reconciliation of opposing forces.
- Childhood: (born to puberty) Childhood has two substages. The ancient stage is characterized by sporadic consciousness, while the monarchic stage represents the beginning of logical and abstract thought. The ego starts to flourish.
- Youth: (puberty to 35 - 40) Mature sexuality, greater awareness, and the realization that the no-load days of childhood are lost forever. People are trying to gain independence, seek a mate, and build a family.
- Medium Life: (40-60) The realization that you will not live forever creates tension. If you are desperately trying to cling to teenagers, you will fail in the process of self-realization. Jung believes that in middle age, someone faces a person's shadow. Religiosity can increase during this period, according to Jung.
- Old Age: (60 years) Awareness is reduced. Jung thinks that death is the ultimate goal of life. By realizing this, people will not face death with fear, but with the hope of rebirth. Daniel Levinson's Theory of Daniel Levinson
Daniel Levinson's theory is a set of psychosocial 'seasons' through which adults must pass as they enter early and middle-aged adulthood. Each season is created by the challenge of building or maintaining the structure of life, by social norms that apply to certain age groups, especially in relation to relationships and careers. The process that underlies all these stages is individuation - a movement toward balance and wholeness over time. Key stages that he understood in early adulthood and middle age are as follows:
- Early Adult Transition (Ages 16-24)
- Building the Structure of Life (Ages 24-28)
- Settling down (Ages 29-34)
- Be Your Own Man (Ages 35-40)
- Midlife Transition
- Restabilization, to the End of Adult (Age 45 and above)
The 'biopsychosocial' approach to adult development states that in order to understand human development, its biological, psychological, and social level analyzes should be included. There are various biopsychosocial meta-models, but they all require a commitment to the following four premises:
- Human development occurs simultaneously at the biological, psychological, and social level throughout life, and a complete descriptive account of development must include all three levels.
- Development on each of these three levels reciprocally affects the other two levels; therefore nature (biology) and nurture (social environment) are in a constant complex interaction, when considering how and why psychological developments occur.
- Biological, psychological, and social descriptions and explanations are all equally valid to each other, and no level has a causal advantage over the other two.
- Every aspect of human development is best explained and explained in relation to the whole person and its social context, as well as its biological and cognitive parts. This can be called a holistic or contextual perspective, and can be contrasted with a reductionist approach to development, which tends to focus only on biological or mechanistic explanations.
Normative physical changes in adult
Physical development in middle age and beyond includes changes in the biological level (aging) and greater organ and musculoskeletal levels. Sensory changes and degeneration are common at middle age. Degeneration may include breaking of muscles, bones and joints, leading to physical illnesses such as sarcopenia or arthritis.
At the sensory level, changes occur in vision, hearing, taste, touch, and smell, and taste. Two common sensory changes that begin in middle age include our ability to see near objects and our ability to hear high notes. Other developmental changes in vision may include cataracts, glaucoma, and loss of the central visual field with macular degeneration. Hearing also becomes disrupted in middle age and aging adults, especially in men. In the past 30 years, hearing loss has doubled. Hearing Aids as an aid to hearing loss still makes many people dissatisfied with their hearing quality. Smell can occur simultaneously with a change in the sense of taste. "Olfactory dysfunction can impair quality of life and may be a marker for deficits and other diseases" and can also lead to a decrease in satisfaction in flavors while eating. The disadvantages of the sense of touch are usually seen when there is a decrease in the ability to detect vibration stimuli. A loss of touch can jeopardize a person's fine motor skills such as writing and using equipment. The ability to sense painful stimuli is usually preserved in aging, but the process of decline for touch is accelerated in those with diabetes.
Physical damage to the body begins to increase in middle age and late life, and includes degeneration of muscles, bones, and joints. Sarcopenia, a normal developmental change, is the degeneration of muscle mass, which includes strength and quality. This change occurs even in those who consider themselves athletes, and accelerated by physical activity. Many contributing factors that may cause sarcopenia include neurological and hormonal changes, inadequate nutrition, and physical activity. Apoptosis has also been suggested as the underlying mechanism in the development of sarcopenia. The prevalence of sarcopenia increases with age and is associated with increased likelihood of increased disability and limited freedom among parents. Approaches to prevent and treat sarcopenia are being explored by researchers. Specific preventive approaches include progressive, safe and effective endurance training for the elderly.
Developmental changes to various organs and organ systems occur throughout life. These changes affect responses to stress and illness, and can compromise the body's ability to overcome organ demand. Changes in heart function, lungs, and even skin in old age can be attributed to factors such as cell death or endocrine hormone. There is a change in the reproductive system in middle-aged adults, especially menopause for women, end of permanent fertility. In men, hormonal changes also affect their reproductive and sexual physiology, but these changes are not as extreme as that experienced by women.
Diseases associated with aging
As the adult body undergoes various physical changes that lead to declining health, a higher risk of contracting various diseases, both physical and mental, is possible.
- Cancer
Scientists have made a special connection between aging and cancer. It has been proven that the majority of cancer cases occur in those over the age of 50 years. This may be due to a decrease in the strength of the immune system as one of the existing ages or conditions. There are various symptoms associated with cancer, usually growth or tumor can be an indicator of cancer. Radiation, chemotherapy, and in some cases, surgery, are used to treat cancer.
- Arthritis
Osteoarthritis is one of the most common diseases experienced in adults as they age. Although there are various types of arthritis they all include very similar symptoms: joint pain, stiff joints, advanced joint pain, and joint movement problems.
- Cardiovascular disease
It has been found that older age does not increase risk factors for acquiring cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring cardiovascular disease, which is also common in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include various heart conditions that can cause heart attacks or other heart-related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are commonly used to prevent cardiovascular disease.
- Immune system
Infection occurs more easily as you age, as your immune system begins to slow down and becomes less effective. Aging also changes the way the immune system reacts to infection, making new infections more difficult to detect and attack. Essentially, the immune system has a higher chance to compromise the older.
Neurogenesis and adult neuroplasticity
New neurons are constantly formed from stem cells in adult brain parts throughout adulthood, a process called adult neurogenesis. The hippocampus is the area of ​​the brain most active in neurogenesis. Research shows that thousands of new neurons are produced in the hippocampus every day. The brain is constantly changing and rolling itself throughout adulthood, a process known as neuroplasticity. The evidence shows that the brain changes in response to diet, exercise, social environment, stress, and toxic intake. These same external factors also affect genetic expression throughout adult life - a phenomenon known as genetic plasticity.
Maps Adult development
Non-normative cognitive changes in adult
Dementia is characterized by persistent and multiple cognitive deficits within the domain including, but not limited to, memory, language, and visuospatial skills and may result from central nervous system dysfunction. Two forms of dementia exist: degenerative and nondegenerative. The development of nondegenerative dementias, such as head trauma and cerebral infections, can be slowed or stopped but the degenerative forms of dementia, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington can not be changed and can not be cured.
Alzheimer's Disease
Alzheimer's disease (AD) was discovered in 1907 by Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German neuropathologist and psychiatrist. The physiological abnormalities associated with AD include neurofibrillary and tangled plaques. Neuritic plaques, which target the outer regions of the cortex, consist of a drying neuronal material of protein, amyloid-beta. Neurofibrillary tangles, paired helical filaments that contain excessive phosphorylated tau proteins, are located inside the nerve cells. Early symptoms of AD include difficulty remembering names and events, while later symptoms include impaired judgment, disorientation, confusion, behavioral changes, and difficulty speaking, swallowing, and walking. After initial diagnosis, a person with DA may live, on average, an additional 3 to 10 years with this disease. By 2013, it is estimated that 5.2 million Americans of all ages have AD. Environmental factors such as head trauma, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes can increase the likelihood of AD.
Huntington's Disease
Huntington's disease (HD) is named after George Huntington is a disorder caused by an inherited defect in a single gene on chromosome 4, resulting in progressive mental loss and physical control. HD affects muscle coordination (involuntary writhing) and leads to cognitive decline and psychiatric problems. Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 30-50 but can occur at any age, including adolescence. There is currently no cure for HD and treatment focuses on symptom management and quality of life. Current estimates claim that 1 in 10,000 Americans have HD, however, 1 in 250,000 is at risk of inheriting from parents. Most individuals with HD live 10 to 20 years after diagnosis.
Parkinson's disease
Parkinson's disease (PD) was first described by James Parkinson in 1817. It usually affects people over the age of 50. PD is associated with damage to nerve cells that produce dopamine. Common symptoms experienced by people with PD include trembling of hands, arms, legs, jaws, or head; stiffness (stiffness in the legs and the middle part of the body); bradykinesia; and postural instability, leading to impaired balance and/or coordination. PD can not be cured, but diagnosis and treatment can help relieve symptoms. Treatment options include drugs such as Carbidopa/Levodopa (L-dopa), which reduces the severity of motor symptoms in patients. Alternative treatment options include non-pharmacological therapy. Surgery (pallidotomy, thalamotomy) is often seen as the last possible option.
Mental health in adulthood and old age
Older adults represent a significant proportion of the population, and this proportion is expected to increase over time. Older adult mental health problems are important at the level of care and support, as well as policy issues. The prevalence of suicide among adults is higher than in other age groups.
Depression
Depression is one of the most common disorders that occur in old age and comorbid with other physical and psychological conditions, possibly because of the stress caused by this condition. In older adults, depression presents as age-related disorders such as memory and psychomotor speed. Research shows that higher levels of exercise can reduce the likelihood of depression in older adults even after considering factors such as chronic conditions, body mass index, and social relationships. In addition to exercise, rehabilitation of prescribed antidepressants and behaviors, well tolerated in older adults, can be used to treat depression.
Anxiety
Anxiety is a relatively rare diagnosis in older adults and it is difficult to determine its prevalence. Anxiety disorders late in life are more likely to be under-diagnosed due to medical comorbidities, cognitive decline, and changes in the life circumstances that young adults are not facing. However, in the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project, researchers found that the 6-month prevalence rate for anxiety disorders was the lowest for age 65 and older groups. A recent study found that the prevalence of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in adults aged 55 years or older in the United States was 33.7% with onset before age 50 years.