Isaac Newton

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Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 - March 20, 1726/27) was a British mathematician, astronomer, theologian, writer and physicist (described in his own time as "philosopher nature ") that is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists of all time, and a key figure in the scientific revolution. His book PhilosophiÃÆ'Â| Naturalis Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy"), first published in 1687, lays the foundations of classical mechanics. Newton also made a grueling contribution to optics, and he shared credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing a very small calculus.

Newton Principia formulates the laws of motion and universal gravity that dominate the views of scientists about the physical universe over the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and using the same principle to explain the comet trajectories, waves, precessities of equinoxes, and other phenomena, Newton removed the final doubt about the validity of the Solar System's heliocentric model and showed that the movement of objects in Earth and heavenly bodies can be accounted for by the same principle. Newton's theoretical prediction that the Earth was formed as a spheroid oblate was then proved by Maupertuis's geodetic measurements, La Condamine, and so on, convincing most Continental Continental scientists about the superiority of Newtonian mechanics to Descartes's earlier system.

Newton also built the first practical reflection telescope and developed a sophisticated color theory based on the observation that prisms break down white light into visible spectral colors. Newton's work on light was collected in his highly influential book Opticks, first published in 1704. He also formulated empirical cooling laws, made the first theoretical calculations of the speed of sound, and introduced the idea of ​​Newtonian fluid. In addition to his work on calculus, as a Newtonian mathematician contributes to the study of power circuits, generalize the binomial theorem to non-integer exponents, develop methods to estimate the roots of a function, and classify most of the cubic field curves.

Newton is a colleague of Trinity College and the second professor of mathematical Lucasian at Cambridge University. He was a pious but unorthodox Christian, who personally rejected the doctrine of the Trinity and who, unusually for Cambridge faculty members that day, refused to accept the sacred command in the Church of England. Outside of his work on mathematics, Newton devoted much of his time to studying biblical alchemy and chronology, but much of his work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death. Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in 1689-90 and 1701-02. He was awarded the title of nobility by Queen Anne in 1705 and he spent the last three decades of his life in London serving as Warden (1696-1700) and Master (1700-1727) of the Royal Mint, as well as the president of the Royal Society (1703-1727).

Video Isaac Newton

Life

Initial life

Isaac Newton was born (according to the Julian calendar, used in England at the time) on Christmas Day, December 25, 1642 (NS 4 January 1643) "an hour or two after midnight", at Woolsthorpe Manor in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, in the Lincolnshire area. His father, also named Isaac Newton, had died three months earlier. Born prematurely, Newton was a child; her mother Hannah Ayscough reportedly said that she could fit inside a liter of cups. When Newton was three years old, his mother remarried and lived with her new husband, Reverend Barnabas Smith, leaving his son in the care of his maternal grandmother, Margery Ayscough. The young Isaac did not like his stepfather and maintained some hostility towards his mother for marrying him, as this note reveals in the list of sins committed until the age of 19 years: "Threaten my father and my mother Smith to burn them and house over them." Newton's mother has three children from her second marriage.

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at The King's School, Grantham, which taught Latin and Greek and probably inculcated a significant mathematical base. He was expelled from school, and in October 1659, he was found at Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, where his mother, who was widow for the second time, attempted to make himself a farmer. Newton hated farming. Henry Stokes, master at King's School, persuaded his mother to send him back to school so he could finish his education. Motivated in part by the desire to take revenge against bullies in school, he became a top-ranked student, distinguishing himself primarily by building a sundial and windmill model.

In June 1661, he was accepted at Trinity College, Cambridge, on the recommendation of his uncle Rev. William Ayscough, who had studied there. He started as a subsizar - paid him by doing valet assignments - until he got a scholarship in 1664, guaranteeing him four more years until he could get his MA. At that time, the teachings of the college were based on the teachings of Aristotle, which Newton dedicates with modern philosophers such as Descartes, and astronomers like Galileo and Thomas Street, through whom he learned from Kepler's work. He puts in his notebook a series of "Quaestiones" about mechanical philosophy when he finds it. In 1665, he discovered the general binomial theorem and began to develop a mathematical theory which later became calculus. As soon as Newton obtained his BA in August 1665, the university was temporarily closed as a precaution against the Great Plague. Although he was no different from Cambridge students, Newton's personal study at his home in Woolsthorpe over the next two years saw his theoretical development of calculus, optics, and the law of gravity.

In April 1667, he returned to Cambridge and in October was elected a fellow Trinity. Fellows are required to be ordained priests, though this is not enforced in the years of restoration and a declaration of conformity with the Church of England is sufficient. However, in 1675 the problem was unavoidable and at that time his unusual sight stood on the street. However, Newton manages to avoid it with special permission from Charles II (see the "Middle of the year" section below).

His studies have impressed Lucasia's professor Isaac Barrow, who was more eager to develop his own religious and administrative potential (he became ruler of Trinity two years later); in 1669 Newton succeeded him, just one year after receiving his MA. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1672.

Middle of the year

Math

Newton's work has been said "to advance every branch of mathematics then learned". His work on the subject is usually referred to as fluxions or calculus, seen in the October 1666 manuscript, now published among Newton's mathematical papers. The scriptwriter De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas, sent by Isaac Barrow to John Collins in June 1669, was identified by Barrow in a letter sent to Collins in August of that year as:

Mr. Newton, a colleague of our college, and very young... but an amazing genius and skill in these things.

Newton later became involved in a dispute with Leibniz over the priorities in the development of calculus (the controversy of the Leibniz-Newton calculus). Most modern historians believe that Newton and Leibniz developed calculus independently, albeit with very different notations. It has sometimes been suggested that Newton was barely published about it until 1693, and did not give the full account until 1704, while Leibniz began publishing a full report on his method in 1684. (Leibniz notation and "Differential Method", now recognized as a distant notation more comfortable, adopted by continental European mathematicians, and after 1820 or later, as well as by British mathematicians.) But such suggestions fail to account for the contents of calculus in Book 1 of Newton's own Principia (published 1687 ) and in its pioneering manuscripts, such as De motu corporum in gyrum ("On the movement of objects in orbit") in 1684; this content has been shown by critics of Newton's time and modern times. The Principia is not written in the language of calculus either as we know it or as dot notation Newton (later) will write it. His work extensively uses calculus in geometric shapes based on limiting the values ​​of the eliminating ratio of small numbers: in Principia alone, Newton gives this demonstration under the name of 'first and last ratio method' and explains why he laid down exposition in this form, commented also that 'with this the same thing is done as with the indivisibles' method.

Because of this, the Principia has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of a very small calculus" in modern times and the "precursor toute de ce calcul" ('almost all of that is from this calculus') on Newton's time. The use of methods involving "one or more commands from very small" was present in his book De motu corporum in gyrum in 1684 and in his paper on motion "for two decades before 1684".

Newton was reluctant to publish his calculus because he was afraid of controversy and criticism. He is close to Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier. In 1691, Duillier began writing a new version of Newton Principia , and corresponded with Leibniz. In 1693, the relationship between Duillier and Newton deteriorated and the book was never finished.

Beginning in 1699, another member of the Royal Society (which Newton was a member) accused Leibniz of plagiarism. The dispute then broke out in full force in 1711 when the Royal Society declared in a study that it was Newton who was the real inventor and called Leibniz a fraud. The study raised doubts when it was later discovered that Newton himself wrote a closing remark to Leibniz. So began a bitter controversy that ruined the lives of Newton and Leibniz until the last death occurred in 1716.

Newton is generally credited with the general binomial theorem, applicable to every exponent. He discovered Newton's identity, Newton's method, classified cubic field curves (three-degree polynomials in two variables), contributed substantially to finite difference theory, and was the first to use fractional indices and use coordinate geometry to obtain solutions for Diophantine. equation. He estimates the partial sum of harmonic series by logarithms (the precursor of Euler's sum formula) and is the first to use force series with confidence and restore power series. Newton's work on the infinite series was inspired by the decimal Simon Stevin.

When Newton accepted his MA and became a Fellow of "College of the Holy Trinity and Undivided" in 1667, he made a commitment that "I will set the Theology as the object of my study and will receive the holy command when the time set by this law [ 7 years] or I will resign from college. "To this day he has not much thought about religion and has twice signed his agreement with thirty-nine articles, the basis of the Church of England's doctrine.

He was appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1669 on Barrow's recommendation. During that time, every college student at Cambridge or Oxford is required to take a holy order and become an ordained Anglican priest. However, the requirements of the Lucasian professor require that the holder not become active in the church (perhaps so have more time for science). Newton argued that this should free him from the ordination requirement, and Charles II, whose permission was required, accepted this argument. So the conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy is avoided.

Optics

In 1666, Newton observed that the color spectrum coming out of the prism in the minimum deviation position is oval, even when the light rays entering the circular prism, which means the prism refracts different colors with different angles. This led him to conclude that color is an intrinsic property of light - a point that has been debated in previous years.

From 1670 to 1672, Newton lectured on optics. During this period he investigated the refraction of light, indicating that the colorful spectrum produced by the prism can be recompiled into white light by the lens and the second prism. Modern science has revealed that Newton's analysis and white light resynthesis owe to living cell alchemy.

He points out that the colored light does not change its nature by separating the colored rays and illuminating objects, and regardless of whether it is reflected, scattered, or transmitted, light remains the same color. Thus, he observes that color is the result of an object that interacts with the already colored light rather than the object that produces the color itself. This is known as Newton's color theory.

From this work, he concluded that the refracting telescope lens would suffer from the spreading of light into color (chromatic aberration). As proof of concept, he built the telescope using a reflective mirror instead of the lens as a goal to cut the problem. Building on the design, the first known functional reflection telescope, now known as the Newton telescope, involved solving the problem of suitable mirror materials and forming techniques. Newton outlined his own mirror of a particularly reflective metallic speculum composition, using Newton's rings to assess optical quality for his telescope. At the end of 1668 he was able to produce this first reflection telescope. It's about eight inches long and it gives a clearer and bigger picture. In 1671, the Royal Society requested a demonstration of its reflecting telescope. Their interest prompted him to publish his record, Of Colors , which was later expanded into the work of Opticks . When Robert Hooke criticized some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. Newton and Hooke had a brief exchange in 1679-80, when Hooke, appointed to manage the correspondence of the Royal Society, opened a correspondence intended to derive contributions from Newton to a Royal Society transaction, which had the effect of stimulating Newton to seek evidence that the elliptical shape of the planet's orbit would resulting from the centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's universal law of gravity - History and De Motu corporum in gyrum ). But the two men remained generally in bad shape until Hooke died.

Newton argues that light consists of particles or corpuscle cells, which are biased by acceleration into a more dense medium. He approached the sound waves to explain the reflection and recurrent transmission patterns by thin films (Opticks Bk.II, Props. 12), but still retained his theory of 'conformity' that discards cells to be reflected or transmitted (Props.13). However, physicists then like the explanation of pure faint light to take into account the interference patterns and common phenomena of diffraction. Quantum mechanics, photons, and the idea of ​​wave-particle duality today have little resemblance to Newton's understanding of light.

In Hypothesis of Light of 1675, Newton proposed the existence of an ether to transmit power between particles. Contact with the theology of Henry More, revived his interest in alchemy. He replaced the ether with magical powers based on Hermetic ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. John Maynard Keynes, who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, states that "Newton is not the first of the ages of reason: He is the last of the witches." Newton's interest in alchemy can not be separated from his contribution to science. It was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science. Had he not relied on the occult idea of ​​far-off action, in a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also Isaac Newton's occult studies.)

In 1704, Newton published his Opticks , in which he described his theory of corpuscular light. He considers light to be made of very delicate cells, that ordinary matter is made of dirty cells and speculates that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "No rough bodies and Light can be transformed into one another,... and the body should not accept much of their Activity of the Particle of Light that enters their Composition? "Newton also built a primitive form of frictionless electrostatic generator, using a glass sphere.

In an article titled "Newton, prisms, and 'tunicles' of melodious lasers' it shows that Newton in his book Opticks is the first to show a diagram using a prism as a beam expander. In the same book he describes, through diagrams, the use of multi-prism arrays. About 278 years after Newton's discussion, the multi-prism beam expander became a center for the development of a narrow linewidth tunable laser. Also, the use of the expander of this prism file causes the theory of multi-prism dispersion.

After Newton, much has been changed. Young and Fresnel combine Newton's particle theory with Huygens wave theory to show that color is a visible manifestation of the wavelength of light. Science is also slowly beginning to recognize the difference between color and mathematical perceptions that can be categorized. German poet and scientist Goethe can not shake the foundations of Newton but "a hole of Goethe finds in Newton's armor,... Newton has committed to the doctrine that colorless refraction is impossible, so he thinks that telescope sunglasses must be forever perfect, acromatism and refraction are not appropriate.This conclusion is proved by the wrong Dollond. "

Mechanics and gravity

In 1679, Newton returned to his work on (celestial) mechanics by considering gravity and its effect on the orbits of the planets with reference to the laws of the Kepler planetary movement. This was followed by stimuli by a brief exchange of letters in 1679-80 with Hooke, who had been appointed to manage the correspondence of the Royal Society, and who opened the correspondence intended to gain contributions from Newton to the Royal Society transactions. Interest in reviving Newton in astronomical matters received further stimulus with the advent of comets in the winter of 1680-1681, in which he corresponded with John Flamsteed. After the exchange with Hooke, Newton succeeds in proving that the elliptical shape of the planet's orbit will result from the centripetal force inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector (see Newton's universal law of gravity) and De motu corporum in gyrum. Newton communicated the results to Edmond Halley and to the Royal Society at De motu corporum in gyrum , a tract written about nine sheets copied into the Royal Society's Registration Book in December 1684. This treaty contains a developed core Newton and expanded to form the Principia .

The Principia was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial assistance from Edmond Halley. In this work, Newton declares three universal laws of motion. Together, these laws describe the relationship between any object, the forces acting on it and the resulting movement, laying the groundwork for classical mechanics. They contributed much to the progress of the Industrial Revolution that was soon followed and not improved for over 200 years. Much of this progress continues to be the basis of non-relativistic technology in the modern world. He uses the Latin gravitas (weight) for the effect to be known as gravity, and defines the law of universal gravitation.

In the same work, Newton presented a method of geometric analysis such as calculus using 'first and last ratios', providing the first analytical determinations (based on Boyle's law) on the speed of sound in the air, summing up the oblateness of Earth's spheroidal figure, contributing to the equinoxes precession as a result of attraction Moon's gravity on Earth's oblateness, begins the study of gravity from the irregularities in the motion of the moon, provides theories for the determination of comet orbits, and more.

Newton clarified his heliocentric view of the Solar System - developed in a somewhat modern way, since it was in the mid-1680s that he recognized the "sun's aberration" from the center of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton, it is not exactly the center of the Sun or any other body that can be considered at rest; it is "the general center of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets must be appreciated Center of the World", and this center of gravity "is resting or moving uniformly forward in the correct line "(Newton adopted an alternative" break "in the view of the general consent that the center, wherever it is, is resting).

Newton postulates an invisible force capable of further action causing him to be criticized for introducing "occult" into science. Then, in the second edition of the Principia (1713), Newton firmly dismisses such criticism in the general conclusion of Scholium, writing that it is enough that the phenomenon implies gravitational attraction, as they do; but they have so far shown no cause, and it is unnecessary and inappropriate to frame the hypothesis of things not implied by phenomena. (Here Newton uses what has become his famous phrase "non-fingo hypothesis" ).

With Principia , Newton became internationally renowned. He obtained a circle of admirers, including the Swiss mathematician born Nicolas Fatio de Duillier.

Cubic classification

Descartes was the most important early influence on Newton's mathematician. Newton classified the cubic curves in the plane. He found 72 out of 78 cubic species. He also divided them into four types, satisfying different equations, and in 1717 Stirling, perhaps with Newton's help, proved that each cubic is one of these four types. Newton also claimed that four types could be obtained by plane projection from one of them, and this was proved in 1731.

Next life

In the 1690s, Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal and symbolic interpretation of the Bible. A Newton manuscript was sent to John Locke in which he disputed the allegiance of 1 John 5: 7 and his allegiance to the original New Testament manuscript, remained unpublished until 1785.

Although some authors have claimed that the work may be an indication that Newton denies belief in the Trinity, others assure that Newton questions the passage but never rejects such a Trinity. His biographer, scientist Sir David Brewster, who composed his manuscript for more than 20 years, wrote about the controversy in Sir Isaac Newton's famous book of Memoirs, Letters and Discoveries, in which he explains that Newton questions the truth of parts of it, but he never denied such a doctrine of the Trinity. Brewster states that Newton was never known as Arian during his lifetime, first William Whiston (an Arian) who argues that "Sir Isaac Newton is so good to Baptists, as well as to Eusebians or Arians, that he is sometimes suspected, both of whom are two witnesses in Revelation, "while others like Hopton Haynes (an employee of Mint and Humanity)," mentioned to Richard Baron, that Newton holds the same doctrine as himself. " Brewster's view is that the encrypted and obsolete manuscripts written by Newton have been purchased by John Maynard Keynes (among others), then described and known that Newton has rejected Triniarianism.

Then work - The Old Kingdom Chronology Changed (1728) and Observation of the Prophecies of Daniel and Revelation from St. John <174> - published after death. He also devoted a lot of time to alchemy (see above).

Newton was also a member of the British Parliament for Cambridge University in 1689-90 and 1701-2, but according to some accounts his comments merely complained about the cold design in the room and requested that the windows be closed. However he was noted by Cambridge book author Abraham de la Pryme for having scolded students who scared the locals by claiming that a haunted house.

Newton moved to London to assume the position of the Royal Mint warden in 1696, a position he obtained through the protection of Charles Montagu, the 1st Earl of Halifax, then Chancellor of the Minister of Finance. He took over Britain's great position, stepping on the feet of Lord Lucas, the Governor of the Tower (and securing the work of branch supervisors while Chester to Edmond Halley). Newton became perhaps the most famous Master of the Mint after the death of Thomas Neale in 1699, a position Newton held during the last 30 years of his life. These promises were meant as sinecures, but Newton took them seriously, retired from Cambridge's duties in 1701, and exercised his power to reform the currency and punish scissors and forger.

As the Warden, and afterwards the Master, of the Royal Mint, Newton estimates that 20 percent of the coins taken at the time of the Great Recoinage of 1696 are false. Counterfeiting is high treason, which can be punished by hanging, withdrawn, and dismembered criminals. Nevertheless, punishing the most violent criminals can be very difficult. However, Newton proved to be the same as his duty.

Posing as habituÃÆ'Â Â bars and taverns, he collected a lot of evidence itself. For all the obstacles placed for prosecution, and separating the branches of government, English law still has ancient and formidable customs. Newton himself had made justice for peace in all the home districts - there was a draft letter on the subject attached to the first edition of his personal Newton PhilosophiÃÆ'Â| Naturalis Principia Mathematica he had to have. has changed at that time. Then he performed over 100 cross-examinations of witnesses, informants, and suspects between June 1698 and Christmas 1699. Newton succeeded in prosecuting 28 perpetrators.

As a result of a report written by Newton on September 21, 1717 to the Commissioner of Lords of His Majesty's Treasury the bimetallic relationship between gold coins and silver coins was changed by the Royal proclamation on December 22, 1717, forbidding the exchange of gold guineas for over 21 years. silver shillings. This inadvertently generates silver shortages because silver coins are used to pay for imports, while exports are paid with gold, effectively moving Britain from the silver standard to its first gold standard. It is a matter of debate whether he intends to do this or not. It has been argued that Newton considers his work on the Mint as a continuation of his alchemical work.

Newton was appointed President of the Royal Society in 1703 and an associate of the French AcadÃÆ'Â © nie des Sciences. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton enemies the enemy of John Flamsteed, the Royal Astronomer, by publishing prematurely Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica, which Newton used in his studies.

In April 1705, Queen Anne awarded Newton during a royal visit to Trinity College, Cambridge. Knights tend to be motivated by political considerations associated with parliamentary elections in May 1705, rather than the recognition of Newton's scientific or service work as Master of the Mint. Newton was the second scientist to become a knight, after Sir Francis Bacon.

Newton was one of many people who lost weight when the South Sea Company collapsed. Their most significant trade was a slave, and according to his niece, he lost about £ 20,000.

Toward the end of his life, Newton lived in Cranbury Park, near Winchester with his nephew and her husband, until his death in 1727. His step cousin, Catherine Barton Conduitt, served as host in social affairs at his home on Jermyn Street in London; he is his "very loving uncle", according to his letter when he was recovered from smallpox.

Death

Newton died in his sleep in London on March 20, 1727 (OS 20 March 1726; NS 31 March 1727). His body was buried in Westminster Abbey. Voltaire may be present at his funeral. A bachelor, he had released much of his land to his relatives during his final years, and passed away. His letters were sent to John Conduitt and Catherine Barton. After his death, Newton's hair was examined and found to contain mercury, probably resulting from alchemical pursuits. Mercury poisoning could explain Newton's eccentricity at the end of his life.

Personal relationship

Although claimed that he was engaged, Newton never married. The French writer and philosopher Voltaire, who was in London at the time of Newton's funeral, said that he "has never been sensitive to any lust, is not subject to the general weakness of mankind, nor has trade with women - a state which I am persuaded by doctors and the surgeon who attended him in his final moments ". The widespread belief that he died as a virgin has been commented on by writers such as mathematician Charles Hutton, economist John Maynard Keynes, and physicist Carl Sagan.

Newton does have a close friendship with Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, whom he met in London around 1689. Their intense connection suddenly ended and could not be explained in 1693, and on at the same time Newton had a nervous breakdown. Some of their correspondence survived.

In September of that year, Newton suffered damage which included sending wild accused letters to his friends Samuel Pepys and John Locke. His notes to the latter include allegations that Locke "sought to involve me with the woemen".

Maps Isaac Newton

After death

Fame

The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange says that Newton is the greatest genius who ever lived, and once added that Newton was also "the luckiest, because we can not find more than one world system to build." The English poet Alexander Pope wrote the famous tombstone:

Nature and the laws of nature hide in the night; God said "Let Newton be" and everything is light.

Newton was relatively modest about his achievements, writing in a letter to Robert Hooke in February 1676:

If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.

Two authors think that the above quote, written at the time of Newton and Hooke at loggerheads over optical discovery, is a slant attack on Hooke (said to have been short and slouch), not - or in addition - a decency statement. On the other hand, the well-known maxim about standing on the shoulders of giants, published among others by the seventeenth-century poet George Herbert (former Cambridge University orator and colleague of Trinity College) in his book Jacula Prudentum (1651) , has the main point that "dwarfs on the giant shoulders see farther than two", and consequently as analogy will place Newton himself rather than Hooke as a 'dwarf'.

In later memoirs, Newton wrote:

I do not know what I might show the world, but for myself it seems to me that I am just like a boy playing on the shore, and distract myself now and then find a smoother pebble or a more beautiful skin than usual, while a great ocean of truth lay before me.

In 1816, the teeth that were said to belong to Newton sold for £ 730 ($ 3,633) in London to a nobleman who installed it on a ring. The Guinness World Records 2002 classifies it as the most valuable tooth, which will be worth about Ã, Â £ 25,000 ( us $ 35,700) by the end of 2001. Who buys it and who is currently have not yet disclosed.

Albert Einstein kept Newton's picture on the study wall with Michael Faraday and James Clerk Maxwell. Newton remains influential for scientists today, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey of members of the Royal Society of England (formerly led by Newton) asking who has a greater influence on the history of science, Newton or Einstein. The Royal Society scientists consider Newton to have made a greater overall contribution. In 1999, a poll of 100 leading physicists today chose Einstein as "the greatest physicist ever;" with Newton runners-up, while a parallel survey of rank-and-file physicists by the PhysicsWeb site gave the top spot for Newton.

Warning

The Newton Monument (1731) can be seen at Westminster Abbey, north of the entrance to the choir against the choir screen, near his grave. It was executed by the sculptor Michael Rysbrack (1694-1770) in white and gray marble by design by architect William Kent. This monument features a figure of Newton lying on a sarcophagus, his right elbow resting on some of his great books and his left hand pointing to a scroll with a mathematical design. Above it there are pyramids and celestial spheres showing signs of Zodiac and comet paths in 1680. Relief panels depict putti using instruments such as telescopes and prisms. The Latin script on the base is translated as:

Here Isaac Newton's buried, Knight, who, with almost divine powers of mind, and his own unique mathematical principles, explored the paths and figures of planets, comets, sea waves, inequalities in rays of light. , and, what other scientists have never known before, the resulting color properties. Diligent, intelligent and faithful, in the exposition of nature, antiquity, and Scripture, he is justified by his philosophy of God's great and good majesty, and declares the simplicity of the gospel in his conduct. The dawn man rejoices that there has been such a great ornament of the human race! He was born on December 25, 1642, and died on March 20, 1726/7. - Translations of GL Smyth, Monuments and Genii Cathedral St. Paul, and Westminster Abbey (1826), ii, 703-4.

From 1978 to 1988, a Newton image designed by Harry Ecclestone appeared on the Series D £ 1 banknotes issued by the Bank of England (Ã, Ã, Ã, Â £ Â £ the £ £ £ £ £ Â £ Â £ Â £ Â £ to to to the last issued by the Bank of England). Newton is shown behind a note holding a book and is accompanied by a telescope, prism and Solar System map.

The statue of Isaac Newton, seeing an apple on his feet, can be seen in the Oxford University Natural History Museum. The large bronze sculpture, Newton, after William Blake, by Eduardo Paolozzi, dated in 1995 and inspired by the Blake etch, dominates the British Library piazza in London.

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Religious view

Although born in the Anglican family, at the age of thirties Newton held a Christian faith which, if published, would not be considered orthodox by mainstream Christianity; Recently he was described as a heretic.

In 1672 he began recording his theological studies in a notebook he showed to anyone and who recently checked. They demonstrated vast knowledge of the early church writings and pointed out that in the conflict between Athanasius and Arius defining the Creed, he took the losing side of Arius, who rejected the conventional view of the Trinity. Newton "recognizes Christ as divine mediator between God and man, who is under the Father who created it." He was particularly interested in prophecy, but for him, "great apostasy is trinitarianism."

Newton tried unsuccessfully to get one of the two partners who freed the holder from the ordination requirement. At the last moment in 1675 he received a dispensation from the government that forgave him and all future Lucasian chair holders.

In Newton's eyes, worshiping Christ as God is idolatry, to him is a fundamental sin. The historian Stephen D. Snobelen says, "Isaac Newton is a heretic, but... he never makes public statements about his personal beliefs - which his orthodoxy would consider so radical, he hides his faith so well that scholars are still unraveling, his personal beliefs. "Snobelen concluded that Newton was at least a Socini sympathizer (who he had and had actually read at least eight Socinian books), probably an Arian and almost certainly anti-trinitarian.

In minority view, T.C. Pfizenmaier argues that Newton holds the Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity. This view, however, has lost its recent support with the availability of Newton's theological papers, and now most scholars identify Newton as an antitrinitarian monotheist.

Although the laws of motion and universal gravity became Newton's most famous discovery, he warned against using them to view the Universe as a mere machine, as if it were similar to a great clock. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it can not explain who rules the planets in motion. God regulates everything and knows everything that can or can be done."

Along with his scientific fame, Newton's study of the Bible and early Church Fathers is also noteworthy. Newton wrote the work on textual criticism, especially the Historical Account of the Two Famous Corruption of Scripture and Observations of Daniel's Prophecy, and the Revelation of St. John. He placed the crucifixion of Jesus Christ on April 3, 33 AD, which agreed with a date traditionally accepted.

He believed in a rudimentary immanent world, but he rejected the implied hylozoisms in Leibniz and Baruch Spinoza. A well-organized and dynamically informed universe can be understood, and should be understood, on active grounds. In his correspondence, Newton claims that in writing Principia I supervise such Principles might work by considering men for the beliefs of God. He sees the design evidence in the world system: "Unbelievable uniformity in the planetary system should be allowed the effects of choice". But Newton insisted that divine intervention would eventually be needed to reform the system, due to the slow growth of instability. For this, Leibniz rebuked him: "God Almighty wants to end his watch from time to time: otherwise it will stop moving.He does not, apparently, quite the foresight to make it into an immortal movement."

Newton's position was strongly defended by his followers, Samuel Clarke, in a well-known correspondence. A century later, Pierre-Simon Laplace's "Celestial Mechanics" has a natural explanation for why the planet's orbit does not require divine intervention on a regular basis.

Effect on religious thought

Newton and Robert Boyle's approach to mechanical philosophy was promoted by rationalist pamphlets as an alternative to pantheists and fans, and was received with doubt by orthodox preachers and disagreeable preachers such as latitudinarians. The clarity and simplicity of science is seen as a way to combat the emotional and metaphysical superlatives of the superstitious enthusiasm and the threat of atheism, and at the same time, the second wave of British deis uses Newton's discovery to show the possibility of "Religion of Nature".

The attacks on pre-Enlightenment "pre-enlightenment", and the mystical elements of Christianity, are given their basis by Boyle's mechanical conception of the Universe. Newton gave Boyle ideas of their settlement through mathematical evidence and, perhaps more importantly, was very successful in popularizing them.

Invisibility

In a manuscript he wrote in 1704 (never intended for publication) he mentions the date of 2060, but is not given as a date for the end of the day. It has been incorrectly reported as a prediction. This section is clear, when the date is read in context. He opposed setting dates for the end of the day, worried that this would make Christianity worse.

"So, time & half-time [42] or 1260 days or three years & half, recconing twelve months to a year & 30 days to a month like done in Calendars of primitive And short life days Animals placed for the [length of] royal life years of 1260 days, if the date of the complete conquest of the three AC 800 kings, will end 2060. This may end later, but I see no reason to end sooner. "

"This I mention not to affirm when the time will end, but to stop the reckless allegations of strange people who often foretell the final time, and in doing so bring the holy prophecies into discrediting as often as possible because their predictions fail Christ came as a thief in night, and not for us to know the times and seasons God has placed in her own breasts. "

He then revised this date to 2016.

Alchemy

In the character of Morton Opperly in "Poor Superman" (1951), the writer of speculative fiction Fritz Leiber said of Newton: "Everyone knows Newton as a great scientist, few remember that he spends half his life struggling with alchemy, looking for philosopher's rock. on the beach he really wants to find. "

Of the approximately ten million words written in Newton's paper, about a million deal with alchemy. Many of Newton's writings on alchemy are copies of other manuscripts, with his own explanation. The text of alchemy combines artisanal knowledge with philosophical speculation, often hidden behind layers of word play, allegory, and imagery to protect the secret of craft. Some of the content contained in Newton's papers could be considered heretical by the church.

In 1888, after spending sixteen years cataloging Newton's paper, Cambridge University kept a small amount and returned the rest to the Earl of Portsmouth. In 1936, a descendant offered papers for sale at Sotheby's. The collection was broken down and sold for a total of about Ã, Â £ 9,000. John Maynard Keynes is one of about three dozen bidders who get a share of the collection at auction. Keynes went on to collect half the estimated collection of Newton's paper on alchemy before donating his collection to Cambridge University in 1946.

All of Newton's known works on alchemy are currently being put online in a project undertaken by Indiana University: "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton".

Newton's fundamental contributions to science include the quantification of gravitational pull, the discovery that white light is actually a mixture of unchanged spectral colors, and calculus formulations. But there was another, more mysterious side to Newton, who was not known perfectly, a field of activity that spanned some thirty years in his life, though he hid it from his contemporaries and associates. We refer to Newton's involvement in the discipline of alchemy, or as it is often called in seventeenth-century England, "kimchi."

src: www.biography.com

Enlightenment philosophy

Enlightenment philosophers chose the short history of the scientific predecessors - Galileo, Boyle, and Newton in principle - as guides and guarantores of their application of a single concept of nature and natural law to every physical and social field of the day. In this case, the history lesson and the social structure built on it can be discarded.

It was Newton's concept of the universe based on the understandable rational and natural laws that became one of the seeds for the ideology of the Enlightenment. Locke and Voltaire apply the concept of natural law to a political system that advocates for intrinsic rights; the physiocrats and Adam Smith apply natural concepts of psychology and self-interest to the economic system; and sociologists criticize the present social order to try to fit history into a model of natural progress. Monboddo and Samuel Clarke rejected elements of Newton's work, but eventually rationalized it to fit their strong religious views of nature.

src: res.cloudinary.com

Apple Incident

Newton himself often tells the story that he was inspired to formulate his theory of gravity by noticing the fall of an apple from a tree. Although it has been said that the story of the apple is a myth and that it does not arrive at its theory of gravity at all times, Newton's acquaintance (such as William Stukeley, whose manuscript account 1752 has been provided by the Royal Society) in fact confirmed the incident, though not the cartoon version that the apple really hit Newton's head. Stukeley noted in his book Memoir of Sir Isaac Newton's Life conversation with Newton at Kensington on April 15, 1726:

we went to the garden, & amp; drink thea under the shade of some appletrees, just him & amp; self. in the middle of another discourse, he told me, he was just in the same situation, as he used to be, the idea of ​​gravity came to mind. "why the apple always descends perpendicular to the ground," he thought himself: caused by the fall of an apple, as he sits in a comtemplative mood: "why should not go sideways, or upwards but constantly to the center of the earth ? For sure, the reason is, that the earth draws it, there must be a drawing power in matter, & the amount of image power in the matter of the earth must be at the center of the earth, not in the earth's side, so this apple dose falls straight, or toward the center. If matter thus attracts matter, it must be in proportion to its quantity, therefore the apple attracts the earth, and the earth attracts apples. "

John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the Royal Mint and husband of Newton's nephew, also described the events when he wrote about Newton's life:

In 1666 he retired from Cambridge to his mother in Lincolnshire. While he is pensive in the garden, he thinks that the force of gravity (which carries apples from the tree to the ground) is not limited to a certain distance from the earth, but that this force must extend further than it usually thinks. Why not as tall as the Moon says he is for himself & amp; if so, it should affect its motion & amp; may defend it in its orbit, where it falls to the count of what will be the effect of that presumption.

In the same case, Voltaire writes in his Epic poem (1727), "Sir Isaac Newton walked in his garden, having first thought about his gravity system, upon seeing an apple fall from a tree."

It is known from his notebook that Newton grapples in the late 1660s with the idea that terrestrial gravity extends, in the square-square proportions, to the Moon; But it took two decades to develop a full theory. The question is not whether gravity exists, but whether it extends as far away from Earth as it can also be the force that holds the Moon into its orbit. Newton points out that if the force decreases as the inverse square of distance, one can indeed calculate the orbital period of the Moon, and get a good deal. He suspects that the same force is responsible for other orbital movements, and hence calls it "universal gravitation".

Various trees are claimed to be the "apple tree" described by Newton. The King's School, Grantham, claimed that the tree was bought by the school, was uprooted and transferred to the principal's garden a few years later. The staff of the current (now) National Trust-owned Woolsthorpe denied this, and claimed that the tree in their garden was described by Newton. The descendants of the original tree can be seen growing outside the main gates of Trinity College, Cambridge, under Newton's living room when he studied there. The National Fruit Collection at Brogdale can provide a transplant from their tree, which looks identical to Flower of Kent, a type of rough cuisine.

src: 4.bp.blogspot.com

Work

Published in his lifetime

• De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas (1669, published 1711)
• Of Natures Obvious Laws & amp; Process in Vegetation (unpublished, c.1671-75)
• De motu corporum in gyrum (1684)
• PhilosophiÃÆ'Â| Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
• Scala graduum Caloris. Captions Calorum & amp; signa (1701)
• Opticks (1704)
• Report as Master of the Mint (1701-1725)
• Arithmetica Universalis (1707)

Published posthumously

• De mundi systemate ( World System ) (1728)
• Optical Lecture (1728)
• Old Kingdom Chronology Modified (1728)
• Observations on Daniel and The Apocalypse of St. John (1733)
• Fluxions Method (1671, published 1736)
• Historical Two Corruption Account Made Scripture (1754)

Primary source

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading

Religion

External links

• Sir Isaac Newton at EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica
• Works by Isaac Newton on LibriVox (public domain audiobook)
• Isaac Newton publications indexed by Google Scholar
• ScienceWorld biography by Eric Weisstein
• Dictionary of Scientific Biography
• "The Newton Project"
• "Newton - Canada Project"
• "Dark Newton's Secret" - NOVA TV Program
• from The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
  • "Isaac Newton", by George Smith
  • "Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica ", by George Smith
  • "Newton's Philosophy", by Andrew Janiak
  • "Newton's view of space, time, and motion", by Robert Rynasiewicz
• "Newton's Castle" Ã, - educational material
• "The Chymistry of Isaac Newton", research on his alchemical writings
• The "General Scholium" for Newton Principia
• Kandaswamy, Anand M. " Newton/Leibniz Conflict in Context "
• Newton ODE, First - A study of how Newton estimates first-order ODE solutions using unlimited series
• Isaac Newton in the Mathematical Genealogy Project
• "Isaac Newton's mind" Ã, - images, audio, animation, and interactive segments
• Enlightening Science Videos about Newton's biography, optics, physics, acceptance, and his views on science and religion
• Newton's Biography (St Andrews University)
• Ã, "Newton, Sir Isaac". EncyclopÃÆ'Â|dia Britannica . 19 (issue 11). 1911. p.Ã, 583-592.
• "Archive material related to Isaac Newton". National Archives of England.
• Sir Isaac Newton's portrait at the National Portrait Gallery, London
• The Linda Hall Library has digitized two copies of John Marsham (1676) Canon Chronicus Aegyptiacus , one of which is owned by Isaac Newton, which marks important sections by glaring at the pages so that the angle acts as a arrow. Books can be compared side by side to show what attracted Newton.

Posts by Newton

• Newton's work - full text, on Project Newton
• Newton's Manuscript at the National Library of Israel - a collection of all his religious writings
• Works by Isaac Newton in Project Gutenberg
• Works based on or about Isaac Newton in the Internet Archive
• Works by Isaac Newton on LibriVox (public domain audiobook)
• Descartes, Space, and Body and New Light and Color Theory , a modern version that Jonathan Bennett can read
• Opticks, or Minutes of Reflection, Refraction, Infection and Color of Light , full text on archive.org
• "Newton Papers" - Cambridge Digital Library
• (1686) "Letter from Mr. Isaac Newton... contains his new theory of light and color", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society , Vol. XVI, No. 179, pp.Ã, 3057-3087.Ã, - digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library
• (1704) Opticks - digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library
• (1719) Optice Ã, - digital fax in Linda Hall Library
• (1729) Lectiones opticae Ã, - digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library
• (1749) Optices libri tres - digital facsimile at Linda Hall Library

Source of the article : Wikipedia