Animal tracking , in ethology, is one of many movements or methods that animals use to move from one place to another. Some self-propelled (initially) propulsion modes, for example, running, swimming, jumping, flying, jumping, flying and gliding. There are also many animal species that depend on their environment for transportation, a type of mobility called passive movement, for example, sailing (some jellyfish), kiting (spiders) and rolling (some beetles and spiders).
Animals move for various reasons, such as finding food, matchmaking, appropriate micro-habitats, or to escape from predators. For many animals, the ability to move is essential to survival and, as a result, natural selection has shaped the methods and driving mechanisms used by moving organisms. For example, migratory animals traveling long distances (such as Ark tern) typically have a propulsion mechanism that requires very little energy per unit of distance, whereas non-migratory animals that must often move quickly to escape from predators tend to have very expensive costs , but very fast, move.
The anatomical structures used animals for movement, including cilia, legs, wings, arms, fins, or tails are sometimes referred to as the locomotive organs or locomotive structures .
Video Animal locomotion
Etimologi
The term "mover" is formed in English from the Latin loco "from a place" (motion ablatif motion "place") motio ", moving ".
Maps Animal locomotion
Locomotion in different media
Animals move through, or on, four types of environments: aquatic (in or over water), terrestrial (at ground or other surface, including arboreal, or tree dwellers), fossils (underground), and air (in the air). Many animals - such as semi-aquatic animals, and bird divers - regularly move through more than one type of media. In some cases, the surface on which they are based facilitates their propulsion method.
Aquatic
Swimming
In water, floats are allowed to use buoyancy. If the animal's body is less dense than water, its body can stay afloat. This takes a bit of energy to maintain a vertical position, but requires more energy to move in the horizontal plane than the less floating animals. The obstacles encountered in the water are much larger than in the air. Therefore Morphology is important for efficient drivers, which in many cases are essential to basic functions such as capture prey. Fusiform and torpedo-like body shapes are seen in many aquatic animals, although the mechanisms they use to move are very diverse.
The main way in which fish produce a boost is by emptying the body from side to side, the resulting wave motion ends at a large tail fin. Smoother controls, such as for slow motion, are often accomplished with a push from the pectoral fins (or front limbs in marine mammals). Some fish, such as visible test fish (Hydrolagus colliei ) and batiform fish (electric rays, saws, guitar fish, rollerblading and stingrays) use their pectoral fins as a prime mover, sometimes called pool labriform. Marine mammals empty their bodies in the up-and-down direction (dorso-ventral). Other animals, such as penguins, ducks subs, are moving underwater in a way called "aquatic flying." Some fish propel themselves without body wave movements, such as slow-moving sea horses and Gymnotus . Other animals, such as cephalopods, use jet propulsion to travel rapidly, fetching water and then spraying it back in an explosion. Other swim animals may rely heavily on their limbs, just like humans when swimming. Although life on land comes from the ocean, terrestrial animals have returned to an aquatic lifestyle on several occasions, such as fully aquatic cetaceans, which are now very different from their terrestrial ancestors.
Dolphins sometimes rise in bow waves created by boats or surf on crashing waves naturally.
Benthic
Motion clashing is a movement by animals that live in, at, or near the bottom of the aquatic environment. At sea, many animals walk on the ocean floor. Echinodermata mainly use their tube feet to move. The tube feet usually have a shaped end like a suction pad that can create a vacuum through muscle contraction. This, along with some rigidity of the secretions of the mucus, provides adhesion. The wave of leg tube and relaxant contractions move along the obedient surface and the animals move slowly. Some sea urchins also use their spines for benthic movements.
Crabs usually run sideways (the behavior that gives us the word crabwise ). This is due to the articulation of the feet, which makes the gait more efficient. However, some crabs go forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, especially Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, especially the Portunidae so that their last pair of walking legs are leveled into a swimming paddle.
A stomatopod, Nannosquilla decemspinosa , can escape by rolling itself into self-propelled wheels and rolling backwards at 72 rpm. They can travel more than 2 m using this unusual propulsion method.
Aquatic surface
Velella , a seafarer, is a civariate without a propeller other than sailing. A small sailing project rigidly into the air and catches the wind. Velella screen is always aligned along the wind direction where the screen can function as aerofoil, so animals tend to sail against the wind at a small angle to the wind.
While larger animals such as ducks can move on the water by floating, some small animals move past it without breaking through the surface. These surface movements take advantage of surface water tension. Animals that move in this way include a water strider. Air striders have hydrophobic feet, preventing them from disturbing the water structure. Another form of propulsion (where the surface layer is damaged) is used by a basilisk lizard.
Aerial
Active flight
Gravity is the main obstacle to flying. Since it is not possible for every organism to have a density as low as air, flying animals must generate sufficient lift to rise and stay in the air. One way to achieve this is with the wings, which, when moving through the air, produce upward lifting force on the animal's body. The flying animal must be very light to reach the flight, the largest live flying animal is a bird about 20 pounds. Other structural adaptations of flying animals include weight reduction, fusiform shapes and strong and redistributed aviation muscles; there may also be physiological adaptations. Active flight has evolved independently at least four times, on insects, pterosaurs, birds and bats. Insects were the first taxon to develop the flight, about 400 million years ago (mya), followed by pterosaurs around 220 mya, birds about 160 mya, then bats around 60 mya.
Gliding
Instead of an active flight, some animals arbore (semi-) reduce their rate of fall by sliding. Glide is a heavier flight of air without using a push; the term "volplaning" also refers to flight mode in animals. This flight mode involves flying farther horizontally than vertically and therefore can be distinguished from a simple breed like a parachute. Glides have evolved on more occasions than active flights. There are several examples of animals gliding in some major taxonomic classes such as invertebrates (eg, launcher ants), reptiles (eg, bound flying snakes), amphibians (eg flying frogs), mammals (eg, sugar gliders, squirrel gliders).
Some aquatic animals also regularly use gliding, for example, flying fish, octopus and squid. Flying fishes are usually about 50 meters (160 ft), though they can use up-stream in the front-wave to travel up to 400 m (1,300 ft). To glide up out of the water, a flying fish moves its tail up to 70 times per second. Some sea squid, like a Pacific flying squid, jumps out of the water to avoid predators, an adaptation similar to flying fish. The smaller squid flies in the shelf, and has been observed for a distance of 50 m. The small fins on the back of the mantle help to stabilize flying gestures. They get out of the water by removing the water from their funnel, indeed some squid have been observed to keep the water flowing while the air gives a boost even after leaving the water. This might make the squid fly the only animal with jet-propelled air propulsion. Flying fluorescent squid has been observed to slide for distances over 30 m, at speeds up to 11.2 m/s.
Soaring
A rising bird can keep the flight without flapping wings, using rising air currents. Many flying birds are able to "lock" their long wings by using special tendons. The soaring birds can alternate gliding with periods of soaring in the rising air. Five main types of lifting are used: thermal, ridge lift, lee wave, convergence and dynamic spikes.
An example of a flight soaring by birds is the use of:
- Thermal and convergence by raptors like vultures
- Ridge lifts by gulls near the cliff
- Increased wave by migrating birds
- Dynamic effects near the surface of the sea by albatrosses
Ballooning
Baloning is the driving method used by spiders. Certain silk-producing arthropods, mostly small or young spiders, emit special light silk for balloons, sometimes traveling a great distance in altitude.
Terrestrial
Forms of movement on land include walking, running, jumping or jumping, dragging and crawling or crawling. Here friction and buoyancy no longer matter, but strong skeletal and muscular skeletons are required in most terrestrial animals for structural support. Each step also requires a lot of energy to overcome inertia, and animals can store elastic potential energy in their tendons to help overcome this. Balance is also required for movement on land. Human babies learn to crawl first before they can stand on two legs, which requires good coordination and physical development. Humans are bipedal animals, standing on two legs and keeping one on the ground at all times while walking. When running, only one foot is on the ground at most, and both leave the ground for a while. At higher speed momentum helps keep the body upright, so more energy can be used in motion.
Jump
Jumping (saltation) can be distinguished from running, running, and other echoes where the entire body is temporarily air by a relatively long duration of the air phase and the high angle of the initial launch. Many land animals use jumps (including jumping or jumping) to escape from predators or catch prey - however, relatively few animals use this as the main mode of propulsion. They include kangaroos and other macropods, rabbits, rabbits, jerboas, jumping rats, and kangaroo rats. Kangaroo rats often jump 2 m and are reported up to 2.75 m at speeds up to nearly 3 m/s (6.7 mph). They can quickly change their direction between jumps. Rapid propulsion of rat-tailed rat kangaroos can minimize energy costs and risk of predation. The use of "motion-shifting" mode can also make it less conspicuous for nocturnal predators. Frogs are, relative to their size, the best jumper of all vertebrates. The Australian rocket frog, Litoria nasuta , can jump more than 2 meters (6 feet 7 inches), more than fifty times its body length.
Peristaltic and looping
Other animals move in terrestrial habitats without the help of the feet. Earthworms are crawling by peristalsis, the same rhythmic contractions that drive food through the digestive tract.
Leeches and caterpillar moth geometers move by swinging or shifting (measuring their length with each movement), using round and elongated round muscles (like for peristalsis) along with the ability to attach to surfaces at both anterior and posterior ends. One end is attached and the other end is projected forward peristaltically until it touches downward, as far as can be achieved; then the first end is released, pulled forward, and reconnected; and repetitive cycles. In the case of a leech, clinging is by a sucker at each end of the body.
Sliding
Because of its low friction coefficient, ice provides an opportunity for other driving modes. Penguins walk on their feet or glide over their belly in the snow, a movement called tobogganing , which saves energy while moving quickly. Some pinnip have the same behavior called sledding .
Brachiation
Some animals are devoted to moving on non-horizontal surfaces. One of the common habitats for climbing animals is in trees, for example gibbons are specific to the arboreal movement, traveling quickly with brachiation. Another case is an animal like a snow leopard that lives on a steep rock surface like the one found on a mountain. Some light animals can climb a smooth surface or hang upside down by using a sucker. Many insects can do this, though much larger animals like geckos can also perform similar feats.
Walking and running
Species have different number of legs that make a big difference in movement.
Modern birds, although classified as tetrapods, usually have only two functional legs, some (eg, ostriches, emus, kiwi) are used as their main mode of locus, Bipedal. Some modern species of mammmalian are biped habits whose normal method moves two feet. These include macropods, rat and mouse kangaroos, springhare, rat hopping, pangolins and homininan macaques. Bipedalism is rarely found outside of terrestrial animals - although at least two types of octopus run bipedally on the seabed using their two arms, so they can use the remaining arm to disguise themselves as an algae or floating coconut mat.
There are no three-legged animals - though some macropods, such as kangaroos, which alternate between resting their weight on their muscular tails and two hind legs, can be seen as examples of transitional motors in animals.
Many known animals are four-legged animals, walking or running on four legs. Some birds use quadrupedal movement in some circumstances. For example, shoebill occasionally uses its wings to its own right after crashing prey. The newly hatched hoatzin has a claw on the thumb and forefinger that allows it to climb the tree deftly until its wings are strong enough for sustainable flight. These claws disappear when the bird reaches adulthood.
The relatively few animals use five limbs to move. Roll out putty can use its tail to aid movement and while grazing, kangaroos and other macropods use their tails to push themselves forward with four legs used to maintain balance.
Insects generally run on six legs - although some insects like nymphalid butterflies do not use the forefoot to walk.
Arachnids have eight legs. Most arachnoids do not have extensor muscles in their distal joints complement. Spiders and whip whips extend their limbs hydraulically using their hemolimfa pressure. Solifuges and some harvests extend their knees by using highly elastic thickening of joint cuticles. Scorpions, pseudoscorpion and some harvests have evolved muscles that extend two joints of the foot (femur-patella and patellar-tibia joints) all at once.
The scorpion Hadrurus arizonensis runs using two groups of legs (left 1, right 2, left 3, right 4 and right 1, left 2, right 3, left 4) on a reciprocal basis. This alternative tetrapod coordination is used for all running speeds.
Centipedes and centipedes have many sets of legs that move in metachronal rhythms. Some echinoderms locomotives use many tubular feet on the undersides of their arms. Although tubular legs resemble suction cups in appearance, gripping action is a function of adhesive chemicals rather than suction. Other chemicals and ampullae relaxation allow to release from the substrate. The tube feet stick to the surface and move in waves, with one arm section attached to the surface as another release. Some multi-armed sea stars, moving quickly like sunflower seastars ( Pycnopodia helianthoides ) pull themselves together with some of their arms while letting others lag behind. Other sea stars appear at the ends of their arms as they move, which show the sensory tube feet and eyespots for external stimuli. Most sea stars can not move quickly, the typical speed is the skin star ( Dermasterias imbricata ), which can adjust only 15 cm (6 inches) in one minute. Some species excavate from the genera Astropecten and Luidia have points rather than suckers at the feet of their long tubes and are able to move faster, "glide" on the ocean floor. The sand star ( Luidia foliolata ) can travel at a speed of 2.8 m (9Ã, ft 2Ã, in) per minute. Sunflower starfish is a fast and efficient hunter, moving at a speed of 1 m/min (3.3 m/min) using a 15,000 foot foot.
Many animals change the number of legs they use to move in different situations. For example, many four-legged animals resort to bipedalism to achieve low-level exploration in the trees. The genus Basiliscus is an arboreal lizard that usually uses quadrupedalism in the trees. When frightened, they can fall into the water below and run on the surface on their hind feet about 1.5 m/s for a distance of about 4.5 meters (15 ft) before they sink to a crawl and swim position. They can also defend themselves by crawling while "water-walking" to increase the distance traveled above the surface by about 1.3 meters. When the cockroaches run fast, they raise their hind legs like bipedal humans; this allows them to run at speeds up to 50 body lengths/s, equivalent to "several hundred miles per hour, if you enlarge the human size". When grazing, kangaroos use the form of pentapedalism (four legs plus tail) but switch to jump (bipedalism) when they want to move at greater speed.
Powered cartwheeling
The Moroccan fic-flac spider uses a series of rapid and acrobatic flick-up movements of its feet similar to those used by gymnasts, to actively push itself from the ground, allowing for both moves down and uphill, even at a 40 percent slant. This behavior is different from other huntsman spiders, such as Carparachne aureoflava of the Namib Desert, which uses passive carts as a form of propulsion. The flic-flac spider can reach speeds up to 2 m/s using the flop to the front or rear to avoid threats.
Subterranean
Some animals move through solids such as soil by digging using peristaltic, as in earthworms, or other methods. In loose solids like the sand of some animals, such as gold dust, marsupial marshes, and pink fairy armadillos, can move faster, 'swim' through the loose substrate. Game animals include soil mice, ground squirrels, rats, tilefish, and cricket mole.
Arboreal locomotion
Arboreal motion is the driving of animals in the trees. Some animals can only scale trees occasionally, while others are arboreal only. These habitats pose many mechanical challenges to animals moving through them, causing various anatomical, behavioral and ecological consequences and variations across different species. In addition, many of these same principles can be applied to climbing without trees, as in rock or mountain piles. The earliest known tetrapods with specialties that adapt them to climb trees, are Suminia , the final Permian synapses, about 260 million years ago. Some invertebrate animals are exclusively arboreal in the habitat, for example, snail trees.
Brachiation (from brachium , Latin for "arm"), is an arboreal drive form in which primates swing from tree branches to tree branches only by using their arms. During brachiation, the body is alternately supported under each forelimb. This is the main driving force for small giants and gibbons in Southeast Asia. Some New World monkeys like spider monkeys and muriquis are "semibrachiators" and move through the trees with a combination of jumps and brachiasi. Some New World species also practice suspensory behavior by using their wearable tail, which acts as the fifth hand grip.
Energetics
Animals require energy to overcome various forces including friction, drag, inertia and gravity, although this influence depends on the circumstances. In terrestrial environments, gravity must be overcome while air resistance has little effect. In an aqueous environment, friction (or dragging) becomes a major energetic challenge with gravity becoming less influenced. Remaining in aqueous environments, animals with natural buoyancy emit less energy to maintain a vertical position in the water column. Others naturally drown, and have to spend energy to stay afloat. Drag is also an energetic influence in flight, and the aerodynamic flying body shape of an efficient aerodynamic bird shows how they evolved to overcome this. Limbless organisms that move on land have to energetically overcome surface friction, however, they usually do not need to expend significant energy to fight gravity.
Newton's third law of motion is widely used in the study of animal propulsion: if at rest, to move forward an animal must push something back. Ground animals should encourage strong soil, swimming, and flying animals should encourage fluids (both water and air). The influence of forces during movement in the design of the skeletal system is also important, such as the interaction between motion and muscle physiology, in determining how the structure and effectors of locomosi allow or limit the movement of animals. The energetic of the movement involves the expulsion of energy by the animal in motion. The energy consumed while moving is not available for other efforts, so the animal has usually evolved to use the minimum possible energy during movement. However, in the case of certain behaviors, such as movers to escape from predators, performance (such as speed or maneuverability) is more important, and such movements may be very expensive. Furthermore, animals can use very expensive locomotive methods when environmental conditions (such as being in burrows) block other modes.
The most common energy metric used during driving is the so-called "additional" transport cost, which is defined as the amount of energy (eg, Joule) required above the initial metabolic rate to move a certain distance. For aerobic movements, most animals have almost constant transport costs - moving a certain distance requires the same caloric expenditure, regardless of its speed. This firmness is usually achieved with a gait change. Clean transportation costs are the lowest, followed by flights, with the limbed terrestrial movement being the most expensive per unit distance. However, because of the speed involved, flight requires the most energy per unit of time. This does not mean that animals that normally move by running will become more efficient swimmers; However, this comparison assumes an animal has a specialization for the shape of the movement. Another consideration here is body mass - heavier animals, although using more total energy, require less energy per unit mass to move. Physiologists generally measure energy use by the amount of oxygen consumed, or the amount of carbon dioxide produced, in animal respiration. In terrestrial animals, transport costs are usually measured when they walk or run on motorized treadmills, either wearing masks to capture gas exchange or with the entire treadmill inside the metabolic chamber. For small rodents, such as deer mice, transport costs have also been measured during voluntary wheel braking.
Energetics are important for explaining the evolution of the economic decision to feed on organisms; for example, the study of African honey bees, A. m. scutellata, has shown that honeybees can trade high sucrose content from viscous nectar for the energetic benefits of warmer and less intense nectar, which also reduces their consumption and flight time.
Passive movers
Passive motion in animals is a type of mobility in which animals depend on their environment for transportation.
Hydrozoan
The Portuguese man's war ( Physalia physalis ) lives on the surface of the oceans. The gaseous bladder, or pneumatophore (sometimes called "sailing"), remains on the surface, while the remainder is submerged. Since the Portuguese have no means of propulsion, it is driven by a combination of wind, current, and currents. The screen comes with siphon. In the event of a surface attack, the screen may be deflated, allowing the organism to soak briefly.
Arachnid
The wheel spider ( Carparachne aureoflava ) is a huntsman spider of about 20 mm and is from the Namib Desert in South Africa. The spider escapes from the parasitic pompilid wasps by flipping to its sides and along the dunes at speeds of up to 44 revolutions per second. If the spider is on a sloping mound, its rolling speed may be 1 meter per second.
A spider (usually confined to an individual of a small species), or spiderling after hatching, climbs as high as possible, stands with his feet raised with his stomach pointing up ("tiptoe"), and then releases some silk thread from his spinneret into air. It forms a triangle-shaped parachute that brings the spider in the currents of the wind, where even the slightest wind carries it. Earth's static electricity field can also provide power in windless conditions.
Insects
The Cicindela dorsalis larvae, the eastern tiger beetle, is renowned for its ability to leap into the air, circling its body into a spinning wheel and rolling along the sand at high speed using the wind to move. If the wind is strong enough, the larvae can cover up to 60 meters (200 feet) in this way. This remarkable ability may have evolved to help escape larvae from predators such as the Methocha tiphiid wasps.
The largest subfamily of cuckoo wasps, Chrysidinae, commonly kleptoparasit, lay eggs in the host's nest, where their larvae eat eggs or egg larvae when young. Chrysidines are distinguished from members of other subfamilies who have largely flattened or sunken lower abdomen and may curl into defensive balls when attacked by potential hosts, a process known as conglobation. Protected by hard chitin in this position, they are expelled from the nest unscathed and can look for host that is less hostile.
Ticks can jump vertically up to 18 cm and horizontally up to 33 cm, however, although this form of movement is initiated by ticks, it has little control over jumps - they always jump in the same direction, with little variation in the path between individual jumps.
crustacea
Although stomatopods typically feature a standard actuation type as seen in true shrimp and lobster, a species, Nannosquilla decemspinosa , has been observed to reverse itself into a rough wheel. This species lives in shallow sandy areas. At low tide, N. decemspinosa is often stranded by its short hind legs, which is enough to move when the body is supported by water, but not on dry ground. The mantis shrimp then flip forward in an effort to roll into the next wave pool. N. decemspinosa has been observed to roll over repeatedly for 2 meters (6.6 feet), but they usually travel less than 1 m (3.3 ft). Once again, the animal begins the movement but has little control during its propulsion.
Animal transport
Some animals change locations because they are attached, or live in, other animals or moving structures. This is arguably more accurately called "animal transportation".
Remoras
Remoras is a family of fi cer-finned fish ( Echeneidae ). They grow up to 30-90 cm (0.98-2.95 feet) long, and their distinctive first dorsal fin takes the shape of a modified oval organ, like a sucker with a slat opening and closing structure to make suction and take a company. resistant to the skin of larger marine animals. By shifting backwards, the remora can increase suction, or may escape by swimming forward. Remoras sometimes attaches to small boats. They swim well in themselves, with twisting, or curving motions. When the remora reaches about 3 cm (1.2 inches), the disk is completely formed and the remora can be attached to other animals. The lower lower jaw projected beyond the top, and the animal did not have a swim bladder. Some remoras associate primarily with specific host species. They are generally found attached to sharks, manta rays, whales, turtles, and dugongs. Smaller remora also bind fish such as tuna and swordfish, and some small remoras make their way in the mouths or gills of great manta rays, sea sunfish, swordfish and sailfish. The benefits of remora using the host as transport and protection, as well as feed on materials dropped by the host.
Angler fish
In some species of anglerfish, when a man finds a female, he bit his skin, and releases an enzyme that digests the skin of his mouth and body, uniting the couple to the level of the blood vessels. Men become dependent on female host to survive by receiving nutrition through their circulatory system, and giving sperm to women in return. After melting, the males increase in volume and become much larger than men who live free of species. They live and remain reproductive during the lifetime of women, and can take part in several spawnings. This extreme sexual dimorphism ensures, when the female is ready to spawn, she has a partner immediately available. Some males may be inserted into one female individual with up to eight males in some species, although some taxa seem to have one male rule per woman.
Parasites
Many endoparasites and ectoparasites, due to their parasitic behavior, are transported by other animals. For example, tapeworms attach themselves to the inside of the digestive tract of other animals and do not move inside the animal. But they are dependent on the movement of the host to distribute their eggs.
Other parasites can become locomotives inside, or on, their host, which in turn may be active or stationary. For example, an adult dog louse may crawl around the parent skin of its sleeping dog (locomotion), but when the dog is awake and moving, it can be said that the lice are being transported.
Media changes
Some animals locate between different media, for example, from aquatic to arial. These often require different drive modes in different media and may require different transitional locomotor behavior.
There are a large number of semi-aquatic animals (animals that spend most of their life cycle in the water, or generally have anatomical parts underwater). This is the main taxon of mammals (eg beavers, beavers, polar bears), birds (eg, penguins, ducks), reptiles (eg Anaconda, bog turtles, sea iguanas) and amphibians (eg, Salamanders, frogs , lizard).
Fish
Some fish use several driving modes. Running fish can swim freely or at other times "walk" along the seabed or river, but not on land (eg, flying gurnard - not fly - and catfish from the Ogcocephalidae family). Amphibian fish, is a fish that can leave water for a long time. These fish use a variety of terrestrial locomotive modes, such as lateral undulations, running like a tripod (using fins and paired tails), and jumping. Many of these locomotory modes incorporate several combinations of pectoral, pelvic and caudal-tail motions. Examples include eels, mudskipper and running catfish. Flying fish can make powerful jumps and push themselves out of the water into the air, where their wing-like long fins allow the flight to glide for considerable distance above the surface of the water. This unusual ability is a natural defense mechanism to avoid predators. Flying fishes are usually about 50 meters long, though they can use up-stream in the front-wave to travel up to 400 m (1,300 feet). They can travel at speeds of more than 70 km/h (43 mph). The maximum height is 6 m (20 ft) above sea level. Some accounts ask them to land on the deck of the ship.
Marine mammals
When swimming, some marine mammals such as dolphins, dolphins and pinnip, often jump above the water surface while maintaining horizontal motion. This is done for various reasons. When traveling, jumping can save the dolphins and gusto energy because there is less friction when in the air. This type of journey is known as "porpoising". Other reasons for dolphins and dolphins perform perpoising including orientation, social displays, fighting, non-verbal communication, entertainment and trying to expel parasites. In pinnipeds, two types of porpoising have been identified. "Porpoising high" is most often near (within 100 meters) of the beach and is often followed by small changes only; this can help seals get their bearings at beach sites or rafting. "Low porpoising" is usually observed relatively distant (over 100 meters) from the shore and is often abandoned in favor of anti-predator movements; this may be a way for seals to maximize subconscious awareness and thereby reduce their vulnerability to sharks
Some whales raise (whole) their bodies vertically out of the water in a behavior known as "transgression".
Bird
Some semi-aquatic birds use ground motion, swimming on the surface, swimming under water and flying (for example, ducks, geese). Birds also use diving movements (eg, scoop, aulks). Some birds (eg, ratites) have lost the main drivers of flight. The largest of these, the ostrich, when pursued by predators, has been known to reach speeds of over 70 km/h (43 mph), and can maintain a fixed speed of 50 km/h (31 mph), which makes the two-legged ostrich fastest in the world: Ostrich can also become a traveler with a swim. Penguins walk on their feet or glide over their belly in the snow, a movement called tobogganing , which saves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both legs together if they want to move faster or cross a steep or rocky terrain. To reach the mainland, penguins sometimes push themselves up at high speed to jump out of the water.
Changes during the life-cycle
The animal movement mode can vary greatly during its lifecycle. Marine barnacles are exclusive and tend to live in shallow and tidal waters. They have two stages of nectonic larvae (active swimming), but as adults, they are sessile (non-motile) suspension feeders. Often, adults are found attached to moving objects such as whales and ships, and are thus transported (passive mover) around the ocean.
Function
Locomote animals for various reasons, such as to find food, matchmaking, appropriate microhabitat, or to escape predators.
Food procurement
Animals use motion in various ways to get food. Terrestrial methods include predation of ambush, social prediction, shepherding. Aquatic methods include feeding, shepherding, ram feeding, suction feeding, protrusion and pivot delivery. Other methods include parasitism and parasitoidism.
Learning method
A variety of methods and tools are used to study animal propulsion:
- Treadmill is used to allow animals to walk or run while remaining still by paying attention to external observers. This technique facilitates shooting or recording of physiological information from animals (eg, during energy research). Motorized treadmill is also used to measure the endurance (stamina) of animals.
- Racetracks is lined with photocells or filmed while animals running with them are used to measure acceleration and maximum running speed.
- Kinematics is the study of the movement of all animals or parts of the body. This is usually done by placing a visual marker on a particular anatomical location in the animal and then recording the motion video. Video is often taken from various angles, with the frame rate exceeding 2000 frames per second while capturing high speed motion. The location of each marker is determined for each video frame, and data from various integrated views to assign the position of each point through time. Computers are sometimes used to track bookmarks, although this task should be done manually often. The kinematic data can be used to determine basic motion attributes such as velocity, acceleration, joint angle, and sequence and time of kinematic events. These fundamental attributes can be used to measure various higher level attributes, such as the animal's physical capabilities (eg, maximum running speed, how steep the slope can go up), driving nerve control, gait, and response to environmental variations.. This, in turn, can assist in the formulation of hypotheses about animals or movers in general.
- Plate force is the platform, usually part of the track, which can be used to measure the magnitude and direction of the force of the animal steps. When used with kinematics and a fairly detailed anatomical model, the inverse dynamics solution can determine the strength not only on contact with the ground, but on every joint on the branch.
- Electromyography (EMG) is a method of detecting electrical activity that occurs when muscles are activated, thus determining which muscles are used by animals for a particular movement. This can be done either by surface electrodes (usually in large animals) or planted electrodes (often wires thinner than human hair). In addition, the intensity of electrical activity can be correlated with the level of muscle activity, with greater activity implying (though not definitively indicating) greater strength.
- Sonomemometri uses a pair of piezoelectric crystals grown in muscles or tendons to continuously measure muscle or tendon length. This is useful because the surface kinematics may be inaccurate due to skin movement. Similarly, if the tendon is elastic in series with the muscle, the muscle length may not be accurately reflected by the angle of the joint.
- Tendon force buckles measure the forces produced by one muscle by measuring the tendon strain. After the experiment, the elastic modulus of the tendon is determined and used to calculate the exact forces produced by the muscles. However, this can only be used on muscles with long tendons.
- Velocimetry particle images are used in aquatic and aerial systems to measure the flow of liquid around and pass through aquatic aquatic organisms, allowing the calculation of fluid dynamics to determine the pressure gradient, velocity, etc.
- Fluoroscopy enables real-time X-ray video, for precise kinematics of moving bones. Blurred markers on X-rays can allow for simultaneous tracking of muscle length.
These methods can be combined. For example, studies often incorporate EMG and kinematics to determine the motor pattern , electrical and kinematic event sequences that produce the given motion.
Gallery
See also
- Animal migration
- Animal navigation
- Bird legs and feet
- Fur
- Shared
- Kinesis (biology)
- Animal Movement (book)
- The role of skin in motion
- Taxi
References
Further reading
- McNeill Alexander, Robert. (2003) The Principles of Locomotion Animals . Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. ISBNÃ, 0-691-08678-8
External links
- Beetle Orientation
- Integrated Physics Theory Explains Running Animal, Flying And Swimming
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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